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Translated Québec Theatre in the New Millennium: Established Authors and a Few New Trends
(Anglistik: International Journal of English Studies, 2019-02-16) Nolette, Nicole
In 1988, Québec theatre in translation became "awesome" (Conlogue qtd. in Koustas 1995, 98). "Toronto loves Québec," unironically exclaimed the title of a 2012 article in the Québec theatre magazine Jeu (Côté 2012, 49). In another aptly named article, "From 'Homespun' to 'Awesome:' Translated Quebec Theater in Toronto," Jane Koustas chronicles the evolving response to French-Canadian drama by the main target of its translations: English Canada. Critics attending the translation of Gratien Gélinas' Bousille et les justes at the Royal Alexandra in Toronto in 1962, for example, insisted on its "homespun" qualities, "emphasiz[ing] that which conformed to their vision of quaint, rural Quebec while dismissing the larger questions addressed by the play" (Koustas 1995, 86). Paired with indifference or hostility, this response subsisted through the emergence of what Michel Bélair (1973) called nouveau théâtre québécois, which engaged with the sociopolitical specificity of a rapidly modernizing Québec in the vernacular of Montreal's working class, joual. The dialect's mix of French and English, as well as the context embedded within it, caused issues for translators, who struggled to find an equivalent in English (Bosley 1988). The production of Michel Tremblay's Forever Yours, Marie-Lou at the Tarragon Theatre in Toronto in 1972 showed how the nouveau théâtre québécois, whose sociopolitical particularities were considered undigestible to critics, could be read as universal or "Canadian" (Koustas 1995, 93). Perhaps predictably then, critics adopted "a less defensive, more open attitude" (82) in the 1980s, when theatre artists in Québec started to craft work that was considered "more universal" (97) in scope, or more interested in constructing and deconstructing the possibilities of drama, theatre and performance, as well as in producing pieces that could travel internationally, as in the imagistic and multilingual travelling works of Robert Lepage or Gilles Maheu.
Entre traduction et circulation : réciprocités de la World Literature et du théâtre francophone du Canada
(University of Toronto Press, 2020-01-30) Nolette, Nicole
Cet article emboite le pas aux récentes propositions de David Damrosch quant aux perspectives d’avenir de la World Literature. Nous y considérons une conjoncture particulière, celle de la World Literature, de la traductologie et des arts francophones du Canada. L’article envisage d’abord les approches mondialisatrices que les études préalables sur les productions artistiques québécoises et franco-canadiennes ont préconisées avant de considérer ce qui semble demeurer l’angle mort de ces approches, c’est-à-dire la traduction, elle-même au centre de la conception de Damrosch pour la World Literature. Nous ouvrons ensuite la discussion à deux enjeux plus contemporains de la World Literature : l’hypermédialité du théâtre et ses manifestations « ultramineures » au sein des arts québécois et franco-canadiens. Le dialogue instauré entre ces pages s’engage sur le terrain des modalités d’adhésion de la World Literature à des réflexions sur la mondialisation qui, comme l’ont souligné plusieurs critiques postcoloniales, demeurent, en l’absence d’études véritablement « globales », profondément centrées sur les expériences littéraires étatsuniennes. En centrant les propos théoriques de la World Literature sur des enjeux des arts québécois et franco-canadiens souvent invisibilisés par ces premiers, nous proposons leur élargissement aux potentiels interdisciplinaires de la traduction et de la circulation des œuvres théâtrales hypermédiales. Réciproquement, les discours de la World Literature, jusqu’à présent peu représentés dans les études culturelles francophones du Canada, s’y avèrent d’une grande richesse en introduisant des concepts relativement nouveaux et en valorisant des pratiques qui resteraient elles-mêmes relativement sous silence.
Quelques futurités du traduire dans les fictions théâtrales franco-canadiennes
(Oltreoceano: Rivista sulle migrazioni, 2022-01-29) Nolette, Nicole
Cette contribution sur les fictions théâtrales franco-canadiennes aborde les futurités du traduire qui s’y manifestent depuis les années 1990, notamment la vision néo-babélienne d’un monde cybernétique plurilingue et la possibilité d’une traduction automatisée en langue non-standard par une interprète cyborg.
Effects of natural Lithium and Lithium isotopes on voltage gated sodium channel activity in SH-SY5Y and IPSC derived cortical neurons
(Springer Nature, 2025-08-07) Bukhteeva, Irina; Livingstone, James D.; Singh, Kartar; Pavlov, Evgeny V.; Beazely, Michael A.; Gingras, Michel J. P.; Leonenko, Zoya
Although lithium (Li) is a widely used treatment for bipolar disorder, its exact mechanisms of action remain elusive. Research has shown that the two stable Li isotopes, which differ in their mass and nuclear spin, can induce distinct effects in both in vivo and in vitro studies. Since sodium (Na+) channels are the primary pathway for Li+ entry into cells, we examined how Li+ affects the current of Na+ channels using whole-cell patch-clamp techniques on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and human iPSCderived cortical neurons. Our findings indicate that mammalian Na+ channels in both neuronal models studied here display no selectivity between Na+ and Li+, unlike previously reported bacterial Na+ channels. We observed differences between the two neuronal models in three measured parameters ( Vhalf , Gmax, z). We saw no statistically significant differences between any ions in SH-SY5Y cells, but small differences in the half-maximum activation potential ( Vhalf ) between Na+ and 6Li+ and between 7Li+ and 6Li+ were found in iPSC-derived cortical neurons. Although Na+ channels are widely expressed and important in neuronal function, the very small differences observed in this work suggest that Li+ regulation through Na+ channels is likely not the primary mechanism underlying Li+ isotope differentiation.
An Experimental-Cohesive Zone Model Approach to Predict Fatigue Life of Adhesive Joints with Varying Modes of Loading and Joint Configurations for Automotive Applications
(Taylor & Francis, 2024-10-03) Ibrahim, Ahmed Hanafy; Watson, Brock; Jahed, Hamid; Rezaee, Saeid; Cronin, Duane
Predictive fatigue life models of adhesive joints are necessary to enable the assessment of automotive bonded structures while reducing costly experimental testing. However, contemporary models have typically been calibrated for specific joint configurations and modes of loading, limiting their applicability to large-scale structures. Additionally, available models are based on simulation of cumulative fatigue cycling, making them computationally prohibitive. In the current study, fatigue experimental tests were undertaken on adhesive joints in cross-tension (CT) (load angles of 0°, 45°, and 90°) and single-lap shear joint (SLJ) configurations. A total of nine joint configurations, having symmetrical (same material and thickness) and asymmetrical (dissimilar material or unequal thickness) joints, were tested. Fatigue tests at load levels between 25-75% of the static peak load were performed until joint failure or to runout (two million load cycles). The static tests of the joints were simulated to failure using finite element (FE) models with the cohesive zone method (CZM). The maximum fracture energy release rates (Gmax) were calculated within the adhesive bond line at static loads corresponding to the peak loads of the fatigue tests. The Gmax values, computed from single cycle, specimen-specific FE simulations, were correlated with the measured fatigue life (Nf) of the adhesive joints with varying modes of loading and joint configurations. The fatigue life prediction model, based on Gmax − Nf correlation, predicted the cycles to failure for 85% of the fatigue tests, and 81% of the independent validation tests. The proposed fatigue life prediction approach provides computational efficiency and large-scale compatibility.
Characterization of the Structural Response of Adhesively Bonded Ultra-High Strength Steel Tubes under a Range of Loading Conditions and Assessment of a Rate Dependent Cohesive Zone Model
(Springer, 2024-02-27) Liu, Brian; Watson, Brock; Worswick, Michael; Cronin, Duane
Weight reduction through the use of adhesive joining in multi-material lightweight structures requires material characterization and substructure level model validation to support CAE design. In this study, automotive-scale structural tubes were created by adhesively joining tailored hot stamped (THS) ultra-high strength steel (UHSS) hat sections using a two-part toughened epoxy adhesive applied to the flanges. A custom fixturing method was developed to achieve consistent bond line thickness for the adhesive joint. The physical tubes were tested in three-point bend, axial crush, and Mode I loading at quasi-static and dynamic loading rates, from which the structural response and failure characteristics were established. The experiments were modeled numerically using a previously developed cohesive zone method (CZM) that had been validated for coupon level tests. In the current work, the CZM model is assessed under structural loading conditions, based on predictions of load-displacement response, peak load, energy absorption, displacement-to-failure, and deformation pattern. In addition, crack extension along the adhesive joint was assessed for the Mode I loading condition. The novel bonding procedure developed for this study resulted in consistent experimental loading response. Generally, the predicted results agreed with experimental results, particularly for the Mode I loading and crack extension behavior. However, the CZM model was not able to accurately predict displacement-to-failure for the three-point bend tests, owing to out-of-plane buckling observed in the experiments. With a few exceptions, the CZM adhesive model based on coupon-level data was able to predict the peak force, displacement-to-failure, and energy absorption of the bonded structural assemblies to within 16% of the average experimental responses.
Integration of Muscle Pre-tension and Activation to Evaluate Neck Muscle Strain Injury Risk during Simulated Rear Impacts Using a Finite Element Neck Model
(SAE International, 2025-02-06) Correia, Matheus; McLachlin, Stewart; Cronin, Duane
Prevention of rear-impact neck injuries remains challenging for safety designers due to a lack of understanding of the tissue-level response and injury risk. Soft tissue injuries have been inferred from clinical, cadaveric, and numerical studies; however, there is a paucity of data for neck muscle injury, commonly reported as muscle pain. The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of muscle pre-tension and activation on muscle strain and injury risk resulting from low-severity rear impacts using a detailed finite element head and neck model (HNM). The HNM was extracted from the GHBMC average stature male model and re-postured to match a volunteer study, with measured T1 kinematics applied as boundary conditions to the HNM. Three cases were simulated for three impact severities: the baseline repostured HNM, the HNM including muscle pre-tension, and the HNM with muscle pre-tension and muscle activation. The head kinematics, vertebral kinematics, muscle strains, and three neck injury criteria were calculated to assess injury risk. The kinematic response of the neck model demonstrated an S-shaped pattern, followed by extension in the rear impact cases. The maximum kinetics, kinematics, and muscle strains occurred later in the impact during the extension phase. The distribution and magnitude of muscle strain depended on muscle pre-tension and activation, and the largest predicted strains occurred at locations associated with muscle injury reported in the literature. The HNM with muscle pre-tension and muscle activation provides a tool to assess rear impact response and could inform injury mitigation strategies in the future.
Impact Location Dependence of Behind Armor Blunt Trauma Injury Assessed using a Human Body Finite Element Model
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 2024-01-29) Bustamante, Michael C.; Cronin, Duane S.
Behind Armor Blunt Trauma (BABT), resulting from dynamic deformation of protective ballistic armor into the thorax, is currently assessed assuming a constant threshold of maximum backface deformation (44 mm). Although assessed for multiple impacts on the same armor, testing is focused on armor performance (shot-to-edge and shot-to-shot) without consideration of the underlying location on the thorax. Previous studies identified the importance of impacts over organs of animal surrogates wearing soft armor. However, the effect of impact location was not quantified outside the threshold of 44 mm. In the present study, a validated biofidelic advanced human thorax model (50th percentile male) was utilized to assess the BABT outcome from varying impact location. The thorax model was dynamically loaded using a method developed for re-creating BABT impacts, and BABT events within the range of real-world impact severities and locations were simulated. It was found that thorax injury depended on impact location for the same BFDs. Generally, impacts over high compliance locations (anterolateral rib cage) yielded increased thoracic compression and loading on the lungs leading to pulmonary lung contusion. Impacts at low compliance locations (top of sternum) yielded hard tissue fractures. Injuries to the sternum, ribs, and lungs were predicted at BFDs lower than 44 mm for low compliance locations. Location-based injury risk curves demonstrated greater accuracy in injury prediction. This study quantifies the importance of impact location on BABT injury severity and demonstrates the need for consideration of location in future armor design and assessment.
The necessity of motoric engagement in enhancingroute memory
(British Psychological Society, 2025-07-03) Sivashankar, Yadurshana; He, Philip; Tsapoitis, Patrick; Skorski, Evan; Fernandes, Myra A.
The relative contribution of decision-making and motor engagement at encoding, on route memory, was examined using virtual reality (VR). During encoding, participants explored 12 virtual environments for 40 s each. Navigation strategy during encoding was manipulated within-subjects. On Active trials, participants made decisions about their route of travel. On Guided trials, they followed a pre-determined path overlaid on the road, removing the need for decision-making. On Passive trials, participants sim-ply viewed a set route, without initiating decision-making nor engaging movement during encoding. Following exploration of each environment, participants were asked to ‘re-trace their steps’ using the exact route they had just travelled. We also manipulated type of VR implementation(Desktop VR, Headset VR) between subjects. Movement in a Desktop-VR group was controlled via keyboard input, limiting motoric engagement. Movement in a Headset-VR group occurred using a VR-compatible steering wheel, re-quiring relatively greater motoric engagement. We found an effect of navigation strategy only in the Headset-VR group:route memory was significantly better following Active and Guided relative to Passive trials. Memory did not differ following Active relative to Guided trial types, suggesting that decision-making does not underlie the memory benefit. We suggest route memory is enhanced when initiating physical movement during encoding.
Symbolism itself does not improve memory for elements on the periodic table
(Nature, 2025-02-04) Roberts, Brady R. T.; Tran, Sophia H. N.; Fernandes, Myra A.
Recent work demonstrates that symbols (e.g., $) are reliably better remembered than their word counterparts (e.g., ‘dollar’). It remains an open question whether the memory benefit observed for symbols is due to their unique visual form, or because they offer a symbolic representation of to-be-remembered information. Here, we assessed memory for symbols on the periodic table of elements, which could be presented in symbol format (e.g., H) or word format (e.g., Hydrogen), and compared both to memory for meaningless letters (e.g., J). These stimuli were selected because they all share the same visual features and the former two share the same meaning. Memory was compared across individuals with and without a background in chemistry. In non-experts, memory was highest for words relative to symbols and meaningless letters. In experts (students who had passed an introductory chemistry course), however, memory for words and symbols was equivalent, with both higher than for meaningless letters. Results suggest that prior knowledge of what a symbol means is necessary to gain a memory benefit over semantically-void information, but is not enough to boost memory relative to words. We suggest that using a concrete visual symbol to represent an abstract concept is not enough to confer a memory advantage relative to words; a meaningful and visually distinctive symbol may be necessary.
Encouraging Registered Reports at the Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology (CJEP): An Invited Tutorial by Oshiro et al. (2024)
(American Psychological Association, 2024-11-11) Titone, Debra; Dyson, Ben; Fernandes, Myra; Joanisse, Marc
Continuing Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology’s ongoing commitment to Open Science, we invited Oshiro et al. (2024) to submit a peer-reviewed tutorial of the typical format and to offer key pieces of advice when preparing Registered Reports.
Motoric engagement, but not decision-making, during encoding influences route memory
(Taylor & Francis, 2024-05-30) Sivashankar, Yadurshana; He, Philip; Sauzéon, Hélène; Fernandes, Myra. A.
Navigation aids limit the need for decision-making, possibly hindering memory for routes traveled. We manipulated type of navigation at encoding, within virtual-reality. In the Active condition participants self-initiated decision-making about routes, to find a target, and in the Guided condition followed a pre-defined path overlaid onto virtual streets. In both, they had volitional control using hand-held controllers, allowing head and body rotation in a swivel chair. In the Passive condition they viewed a pre-defined route, with no control of movement. At retrieval, participants were asked to reproduce their exact route from the initial starting point. Route memory was better following Active and Guided encoding than Passive. A visual navigation aid does not impair route memory if volitional movement is maintained.
A case for using methods from natural science in advancing the field of cognitive neuroscience
(Sage, 2024-07-26) Fernandes, Myra A.
Cognitive neuroscience seeks to pinpoint the neural basis of cognitive function. Application of scientific methods can be credited for its advancement within the field of psychology. Past approaches such as phrenology, that linked bumps on the skull to mental capabilities, initially gained popularity, but the lack of experimental testing contributed to its demise. Research in neuropsychology and the use of the double dissociation experimental technique subsequently emerged. Objective measurements of behaviour following selective damage within the brain led to a paradigm shift. More recently, application of the subtraction technique, coupled with the emergence of cognitive neuroimaging tools, has allowed psychologists to isolate and measure specific functions such as language, vision, memory, and recognition of emotion. Importantly, these approaches enable reliable prediction of behaviours, given parameters of brain integrity, a key goal within the field of psychology.
Recurrent involuntary memories and mind wandering are related but distinct
(Springer, 2024-04-23) Yeung, Ryan; Fernandes, Myra A.
Spontaneous thought is common in daily life, and includes recurrent involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs; memories retrieved unintentionally and repetitively) and mind wandering (MW). Both recurrent IAMs and MW are often unintentional or unconstrained, and both predict symptoms of mental health disorders. However, not all MW is unintentional, and not all IAMs are unconstrained. To what extent do recurrent IAMs and MW converge versus diverge? Undergraduates (N = 2,701) completed self-report measures of recurrent IAMs, trait MW, and psychopathology (i.e., PTSD, depression, anxiety). Regressions indicated that recurrent IAMs were significantly associated with spontaneous MW, but not deliberate MW. Further, both spontaneous MW and recurrent IAMs had unique relationships with disorder symptoms. Results suggest that recurrent IAMs are related to MW to the extent that recurrent IAMs are spontaneous. Conversely, recurrent IAMs are distinct from MW to the extent that recurrent IAMs’ associations with disorder symptoms could not be solely explained by trait MW (and vice versa). This work highlights related, but distinguishable, forms of spontaneous thought and their transdiagnostic links with psychopathology.
Disentangling boredom from depression using the phenomenology and content of involuntary autobiographical memories
(Nature, 2024-02-24) Yeung, Ryan; Danckert, James; Tilburg, Wijnand A. P. van; Fernandes, Myra A.
Recurrent involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs) are memories retrieved unintentionally and repetitively. We examined whether the phenomenology and content of recurrent IAMs could differentiate boredom and depression, both of which are characterized by affective dysregulation and spontaneous thought. Participants (n = 2484) described their most frequent IAM and rated its phenomenological properties (e.g., valence). Structural topic modeling, a method of unsupervised machine learning, identified coherent content within the described memories. Boredom proneness was positively correlated with depressive symptoms, and both boredom proneness and depressive symptoms were correlated with more negative recurrent IAMs. Boredom proneness predicted less vivid recurrent IAMs, whereas depressive symptoms predicted more vivid, negative, and emotionally intense ones. Memory content also diverged: topics such as relationship conflicts were positively predicted by depressive symptoms, but negatively predicted by boredom proneness. Phenomenology and content in recurrent IAMs can effectively disambiguate boredom proneness from depressive symptoms in a large sample of undergraduate students from a racially diverse university.
The Beneficial Role of Curiosity on Route memory in Children
(Frontiers, 2024-03-14) Sivashankar, Yadurshana; Fernandes, Myra A.; Oudeyer, Pierre-Yves; Sauzéon, Hélène
Introduction: There has been a growing interest in the role of innate curiosity on facets of human cognition, such as in spatial learning and memory. Yet, it is unclear how state level curiosity evoked by the current environment could interact differentially with trait curiosity, to impact spatial memory performance. Methods: We assessed the influence of trait and state curiosity on route memory. Forty-two 10-year-old children with low and high-trait curiosity (20 Females; 22 Males) actively explored virtual environments that elicited varying levels of uncertainty (i.e., state-curiosity). Results: As trait curiosity increased, so did memory performance in low and high uncertainty conditions, suggesting that high-curiosity children can better recruit cognitive resources within non-optimal environments. Children with high compared to low trait curiosity also reported greater feelings of presence during exploration. Importantly, in environments with medium uncertainty, children with low trait curiosity were able to perform as well as those with high curiosity. Discussion: Results show that individual differences in trait curiosity influence route learning and these interact dynamically with state-curiosity invoked within different environments.
Specific topics, specific symptoms: linking the content of recurrent involuntary memories to mental health using computational text analysis
(Nature, 2023-12-18) Yeung, Ryan; Fernandes, Myra A.
Researchers debate whether recurrent involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs; memories of one’s personal past retrieved unintentionally and repetitively) are pathological or ordinary. While some argue that these memories contribute to clinical disorders, recurrent IAMs are also common in everyday life. Here, we examined how the content of recurrent IAMs might distinguish between those that are maladaptive (related to worse mental health) versus benign (unrelated to mental health). Over two years, 6187 undergraduates completed online surveys about recurrent IAMs; those who experienced recurrent IAMs within the past year were asked to describe their memories, resulting in 3624 text descriptions. Using a previously validated computational approach (structural topic modeling), we identified coherent topics (e.g., “Conversations”, “Experiences with family members”) in recurrent IAMs. Specific topics (e.g., “Negative past relationships”, “Abuse and trauma”) were uniquely related to symptoms of mental health disorders (e.g., depression, PTSD), above and beyond the self-reported valence of these memories. Importantly, we also found that content in recurrent IAMs was distinct across symptom types (e.g., “Communication and miscommunication” was related to social anxiety, but not symptoms of other disorders), suggesting that while negative recurrent IAMs are transdiagnostic, their content remains unique across different types of mental health concerns. Our work shows that topics in recurrent IAMs—and their links to mental health—are identifiable, distinguishable, and quantifiable.
The Association Between Emotional Expressivity in Autobiographies from Early Adulthood and the Risk of Dementia in the Context of Written Language Skills
(Sage, 2023-04-10) Morrison-Koechl, Jill; Fearon, Danielle O.; Fernandes, Myra A.; Tyas, Suzanne
Background: Risk factors for dementia, such as Alzheimer’s disease, are complex and span a lifetime. Exploring novel factors, such as characteristics of writing, may provide insight into dementia risk. Objective: To investigate the association between emotional expressivity and risk of dementia in the context of a previously identified risk factor, written language skills. Methods: The Nun Study recruited 678 religious sisters aged 75 + years. Of these, 149 U.S.-born participants had archived autobiographies handwritten at a mean age of 22 years. The autobiographies were scored for frequency of emotion word usage and language skills (e.g., idea density). The association of emotional expressivity and a four-level composite variable (combining high/low emotional expressivity and high/low idea density) with dementia was assessed using logistic regression models adjusted for age, education, and apolipoprotein E. Results: Within the composite variable, odds of dementia increased incrementally, with opposing effects of emotional expressivity across the two idea density levels. Compared to the referent category (low emotional expressivity/high idea density), the risk of dementia increased in those with high emotional expressivity/high idea density (OR = 2.73, 95% CI = 1.05–7.08), while those with low emotional expressivity/low idea density had the highest risk (OR = 18.58, 95% CI = 4.01–86.09). Conclusion: Dementia risk is better captured by inclusion of multiple measures relating to characteristics of writing. Emotional expressivity may be protective when individuals are at increased risk due to poor written language skills (i.e., low idea density), but detrimental when not at risk (i.e., high idea density). Our findings indicate that emotional expressivity is a contextually-dependent novel risk factor for dementia.
Machine learning to detect invalid text responses: Validation and comparison to existing detection methods
(Springer, 2022-02-17) Yeung, Ryan C.; Fernandes, Myra A.
A crucial step in analysing text data is the detection and removal of invalid texts (e.g., texts with meaningless or irrelevant content). To date, research topics that rely heavily on analysis of text data, such as autobiographical memory, have lacked methods of detecting invalid texts that are both effective and practical. Although researchers have suggested many data quality indicators that might identify invalid responses (e.g., response time, character/word count), few of these methods have been empirically validated with text responses. In the current study, we propose and implement a supervised machine learning approach that can mimic the accuracy of human coding, but without the need to hand-code entire text datasets. Our approach (a) trains, validates, and tests on a subset of texts manually labelled as valid or invalid, (b) calculates performance metrics to help select the best model, and (c) predicts whether unlabelled texts are valid or invalid based on the text alone. Model validation and evaluation using autobiographical memory texts indicated that machine learning accurately detected invalid texts with performance near human coding, significantly outperforming existing data quality indicators. Our openly available code and instructions enable new methods of improving data quality for researchers using text as data.
Enhancing memory using enactment: does meaning matter in action production?
(Taylor & Francis, 2021-10-15) Sivashankar, Yadurshana; Fernandes, Myra A.
Enactment is an encoding strategy in which performing an action related to a target item enhances memory for that word, relative to verbal encoding. Precisely how this motor activity aids recall is unclear. We examined whether the action created during encoding needed to be semantically relevant to the to-be-remembered word, to enhance memory. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to either (a) enact, (b) perform unrelated motoric gestures, or (c) read forty-five action verbs. On a subsequent free-recall test, memory for enacted words was significantly higher relative to words read, or encoded with unrelated gestures. In Experiment 2, to reduce the ambiguity associated with initiating an unrelated gesture, participants were instructed to write target words in the air. Results were similar to Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, we replicated the results of Experiment 2 using video conferencing to record the onset time of action initiation for enacted, unrelated gesture, and read trials. Results showed that planning of meaningful actions may also contribute to the memory performance as evidenced by a longer onset time to initiate an action on enactment relative to gesturing and reading trials. These findings suggest that planning and executing meaningful actions drive the enactment benefit.

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