Geography and Environmental Management

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This is the collection for the University of Waterloo's Department of Geography and Environmental Management.

Research outputs are organized by type (eg. Master Thesis, Article, Conference Paper).

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An Adaptive Ecosystem Approach to Rehabillitation and Management of the Cooum River Environmental System in Chennai, India
(University of Waterloo, 2000) Bunch, Martin J.
This research investigates the application of an adaptive ecosystem approach to the problem of the Cooum River and environs in Chennai (formerly Madras), India. The Cooum River is an extremely polluted urban stream that flows into the Bay of Bengal through the heart of Chennai, India's fourth largest metropolis. During the dry (non-monsoon) season, the upper reaches of the river are dry and flow in the river may be attributed primarily to the production of sewage by the city's population. The river is essentially a foul-smelling open sewer. Complexity of the problem is due as much to human factors (population growth, poverty, uncontrolled urban development, jurisdictional conflicts, modes of behaviour of the citizenry, and institutional culture) as to physical characteristics of the system (flat topography, tidal action, blockage of the river mouth by sand bar formation, and monsoon flooding). Uncertainty in the situation is both structural (regarding main processes and activities in the system and the nature of relationships among the various actors and elements), and parametric (having to do with scarcity, poor quality and restricted access to data). This work has drawn upon methods and techniques of Adaptive Environmental Management and Soft Systems Methodology to operate the ecosystem approach and address the problem. Specifically, this has involved a series of workshops which have brought together planners, researchers, NGOs, and other stakeholders in a participatory process oriented toward problem definition, system identification and conceptualization, determination of objectives for management, and the generation and exploration of management interventions. In addition, a central component of the program has been the development of a loosely-coupled GIS, environmental simulation model, and a decision support module. This is based upon a framework provided by participants in the first workshop in the series, and operationalizes a common understanding of the system. In addition to generating new insight into the nature of the problem situation, the research has provided a potentially useful tool to planners, managers and researchers in Chennai in the form of a GIS database and decision support system (DSS). Aside from the tool itself, it was found that the process of developing a conceptual model, and attempting to represent this in the DSS has made a significant contribution to understanding of the Cooum system. In particular, this process forced assumptions to be stated explicitly and publically, highlighted areas of uncertainty and led to new understanding in participants' conception of the problem situation. The program of research also provided a much needed forum for open debate and exchange of information which was removed from the restrictive institutional culture of government departments.
Exploring the Social, Environmental and Economic Aspects of Trail Surfacing Decisions
(University of Waterloo, 2002) Giles, Andrew
Visitor activities in parks often have a heavy impact on the soil, vegetation, water and wildlife. In front country areas, the most extreme damage is concentrated on and adjacent to recreational trails. Aside from controlling the numbers, activities and behaviours of trail users, managers may choose to make trails more resistant to impact through surfacing. Unfortunately, surfacing may have negative influences on park visitors' enjoyment of trails by limiting access or detracting from the primitive setting. In addition, some surfaces may be ineffective in certain environmental conditions such as wet ground or steep slopes. Finally, the wide variety in construction and maintenance costs may make some surface types economically unfeasible. The goals of this research are to investigate the role of trail surfacing in the management of impacts from outdoor recreation; to develop better understanding of the social, economic and environmental aspects of trail surfacing decisions; and to explore a comprehensive framework for incorporating these three factors in trail management. It is hoped that this research can assist park managers in selecting surfacing options to reduce visitor impact without excessively compromising recreational experience or organizational limitations, such as financial resources. In addition to a comprehensive review of literature on visitor impact management on trails and surfacing techniques, this research employs three methods to further investigate the social, environmental and economic aspects of trail surfacing: a trail user survey, manager survey and trail condition assessment. The trail user survey was conducted at two well-used natural areas in southwestern Ontario, Canada: Presqu'ile Provincial Park and Belfountain Conservation Area. Surveys at each area explored trail users' perceptions and preferences of trail surfacing techniques in late summer 1999. The managers' survey provided insight into organizational approaches to surfacing, including construction cost and observations on recreational or environmental effectiveness. Finally, the trail condition assessment explored an approach to determining environmental effectiveness of trail surfacing techniques, but was limited by the physical and recreational variation between trails. Seven recommendations for trail managers are presented, tying in several conceptual frameworks of visitor impact management and trail surfacing decisions developed in the thesis. First, trail managers are recommended to develop a full understanding of trail design principles and alternative visitor impact management techniques. If surfacing is selected as the best impact management technique, trail managers should obtain as much information on user characteristics, environmental conditions and organizational limitations as possible. Despite the benefits and drawbacks for all surfaces, road base gravel (or angular screenings with fines) merits special attention as an excellent surface, while asphalt and concrete are not recommended for front country, semi-primitive recreation. Finally, trail managers are encouraged to share information on surfacing more freely and open surfacing decision processes to affected trail users. Overall, trail managers are provided with an approach to surfacing decisions that considers the social, environmental and economic aspects of trail surfacing, with the goal of working toward more enjoyable, environmentally responsible and cost-effective trail solutions.
Regulatory Dynamics, Institutional Cohesiveness, and Regional Sustainability
(University of Waterloo, 2002) Parto, Saeed
It is generally acknowledged that economic activity continues apace and at the expense of social and ecological integrity while the course of economic development remains far from any approximation of sustainability. Few would dispute the fact that since 1992 little has been accomplished in practical terms to meet Agenda 21 objectives. Many would agree that Agenda 21-inspired local visions and goals have not translated into actual local change in part because of the complex and the multi-faceted nature of the issues involved. Policy work on ecological modernization and sustainability needs to be explicit on the question of scale and the role of governments. The central challenge for policy makers, action takers, and researchers is to determine the appropriate territorial (physical, social, economic, and political) scale at and through which government power needs to be deployed to effect transition to sustainable modes of regulation. This question is particularly relevant given the current discourse on regionalization / globalization. Adopting a 'post-disciplinary' approach this thesis examines how institutional inter-relations shape the outcome of plans to meet policy objectives on sustainable development at the local (municipality) scale. In-depth analysis of interview and secondary data reveals that numerous factors 'regulate' what occurs at local and other scales in relation to sustainable development. This thesis concludes with exploring the policy and future research implications of the findings.
Implementation of a GIS to Assess the Effects of Water Level Fluctuations on the Wetland Complex at Long Point, Ontario
(University of Waterloo, 2003) Hebb, Andrea
The Long Point wetland complex is one of the most significant coastal wetland systems in the Great Lakes, containing a diverse mosaic of wetland vegetation communities that have developed in response to water level fluctuations due to natural climate variability. Natural short-term water level variations are important for promoting wetland productivity and diversity, but long-term water level changes resulting from human-induced climate change can have serious and long-term consequences on the integrity and health of wetlands. The historical response of the wetland to water level fluctuations was quantified and modelled to provide an indication of how the wetland may respond to future projected water level changes - water level fluctuations are used as a surrogate for climate change. A spatiotemporal trend analysis was conducted within a geographic information system (GIS) to determine the effects of water level conditions on wetland vegetation and land cover at the wetland complex at Long Point, Ontario for seven years from 1945 to 1999. The spatiotemporal trend analysis documented changes in the structure and composition of the wetland complex in response to declining and rising water level conditions. During drier periods, there were significant increases in the amount of drier emergent and meadow vegetation, especially within the Inner Bay and northern portion of the outer peninsula. There was less fragmentation and complexity in the wetland as these drier communities expanded forming larger continuous patches of vegetation. During wetter periods, open water increased and there was a predominance of wetter emergent and meadow communities in the wetland. Drier vegetation communities became interspersed with water creating a more fragmented convoluted wetland landscape. The historical response of the wetland vegetation and land cover to water level fluctuations was then simulated with three different wetland models developed in the GIS. A rule-based model, a probability model, and a transition model were developed to assess wetland response to future water level changes. The models were evaluated using simple statistical methods. The transition and rule-based models performed the best and were successful in predicting over 80 % of the wetland vegetation distribution correctly. The probability model was the least successful, predicting only 55 % of the response correctly. The GIS proved successful in documenting wetland response to historical water level fluctuations and providing insight into the potential impacts of future climate change though water level fluctuations on the Long Point coastal wetland complex. The spatiotemporal analysis and wetland modelling advance the role of GIS in wetland management and analysis. They are practical methods within a GIS that can be used to assess the impacts of climate change on wetland systems and to document and model wetland change in other coastal wetlands of the Great Lakes.
Exploring the Ecological Footprint of Tourism in Ontario
(University of Waterloo, 2003) Johnson, Peter A.
Once considered a 'green' industry, tourism and its associated ecological impacts are now widely acknowledged. Focus within tourism planning has aimed to reduce the ecological burden placed on a destination area, and move towards a more sustainable tourism industry. This research proposes the use of the Ecological Footprint (EF) as a tool to compare the ecological costs of different types of tourism. The EF shows the relative amount of productive land appropriated by the activities and choices of an individual tourist. The main goal of this study was to analyse and compare the ecological resource use of tourism in Ontario. Surveys were conducted with tourists staying at 9 different types of accommodations throughout Ontario. Additional data were collected from personal interviews with accommodation managers at each location and incorporated into the EF calculation. Four areas of tourism ecological impact were identified; tourists' personal consumption, transportation, activity, and accommodation costs. These four components contributed in varying degrees to each tourist Ecological Footprint, and this variation became the main area of analysis. The findings of this research demonstrated that air travel contributes significantly to the total ecological cost of a particular tourism experience. Comparably, travel by personal car made a much smaller contribution to the tourist EF. Thus, local area tourists who could drive to a destination had a smaller EF than those long-distance domestic and international tourists who flew. Accommodation ecological costs were primarily a factor of the amount of built space available, and total energy usage per guest. Accommodations that had a large number of occupants for a given area and level of energy consumption achieved a scale of efficiency. In this manner, larger, more efficiently constructed accommodations often made smaller contributions to the tourist EF than small-scale, but inefficient accommodations. The main conclusion was that the ecological impacts of tourism can be quantitatively recorded, and that a complete trip view of tourism ecological resource use is necessary. When considering practical applications in the tourism industry, an Ecological Footprint analysis could be used by tourism managers as an evaluative tool to compare the ecological outcome of various construction, programming, and operational changes. For the tourist, the EF can serve as an 'eco-label', to distinguish one type of 'green' tourism from another, creating a more informed consumer. Ultimately, the Ecological Footprint serves one purpose- to demonstrate that less ecologically consumptive tourism choices are possible for both tourists and tourism managers.
Urban Regeneration through Public Space: A Case Study in Squares in Dalian, China
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Li, Mimi
Urban regeneration has been accompanying urban development since the earliest human settlement, and was emphasized after the World War Two. Several decades' experience and billions of dollars forced the decision makers to realize the importance of urban image, quality of life, and urban environment, which were recognized as prerequisites and catalysts for the economic development of cities. In this circumstance squares have been involved in urban regeneration projects to create symbol of the city and to provide space for residents, and have been proved to be effective for urban regeneration by many western countries. Dalian, a coastal city in Northeast China presented to be a successful case in the country in involving the construction of squares in regenerating central city to transform the city from a heavy industrial city to a garden city. In the circumstance of urban beautification movement in China, which began in 1990s and was partly symbolized by the construction of fancy, large, but under-used squares, a study on the success of Dalian is indeed needed. This study shed light on the major concerns of Dalian government to create squares in central city, the land use issues of squares, the usage on the squares, and the perception of squares by users. Through the application of key-informant interview, questionnaire survey, and onsite observation, the paper concluded that the construction of squares was part of the urban regeneration policies in Dalian, the major concern was to provide local residents with public open space to enjoy public life, and to improve urban environment. The construction of squares was carefully and systematically planned, the location of squares was pertinent to the land use pattern nearby and to the function of each of the three districts in central city, the squares are fully utilized, and are appreciated by both local residents and tourists. The squares were considered as catalyst in urban environment improvement, urban image enhancement, and tourism and economic development from the perspective of government officials, local residents, and tourists. Implication was provided for other cities in China based on the major findings and reviewed literature, future research opportunities were also suggested.
The Effectiveness of the Internet as a Marketing Tool in Tourism
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Krebs, Lorri
With the ever-increasing number of people accessing the Internet and the recent explosion of e-commerce world wide, there are considerable implications for the tourism industry. Tourism suppliers are investing in the Internet via web pages, advertising and e-commerce, but what role does the Internet actually play in tourism? Before more money is placed into this new 'e-economy', it is important to study the effectiveness of the Internet as a marketing tool in tourism. In order to better address the concerns described above, this research accomplishes several tasks. First, the significance of researching Internet use within the tourism context is established. Specifically, theories and concepts from postmodernism, post-industrialism and post-structuralism are drawn upon as they frame this study. Second, this research explores motivation and decision making within tourism and how the Internet is used during stages of travel preparation, planning and activities. Third, this research explores tourist preferences for novelty and familiarity in three dimensions; travel services, social contact and destination choices, and examines how these are associated with Internet use. The general structure of tourism markets in relation to Internet use as well as novelty and familiarity preferences are also discussed. Three case studies are undertaken to examine these matters: winter tourists, summer tourists and cruise tourists. Novelty-seekers were found to be the most frequent group of Internet users, and also were the most likely to consult a wider variety of information sources when making travel-related decisions. Results also indicate that Internet use for travel varies according to seasonality and destination choices rather than primary activity.
Social Capital and the Significance of Pre-Migration Context among Burmese Refugee Communities In Canada
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Suzuki, Regan
What happens in the case of immigrant groups who have had such pre-migration experiences as to require specialized assistance in the adaptation process, and yet whose population is not substantial enough to convince governmental sources of funding their demands? The wave of Burmese refugees fleeing the 1988 crackdown in their country is one such example. Drawing from perspectives of Participatory Action Research (PAR), this study has several objectives. First, it explores the current settlement needs of the Burmese population by way of relating it to the pre-migration context. By identifying those characteristics which influence the ability of this group to effectively compete for resources among organized ethno-cultural groups in Canada, this study hopes to highlight barriers to full participation. Second, a related objective is the documentation of the settlement and integration issues faced by the Burmese population, namely through an exploratory study of experiences of Burmese communities in Winnipeg and Toronto. Third, it seeks to explore the question of social capital within the Burmese population and its possible implications for resettlement and integration process. Fourth, it will attempt to contribute to the testing of Participatory Action Research as a methodological tool in improving our understanding of refugee resettlement. And fifth, it seeks to generate recommendations that will improve the settlement and integration of this target population within Canadian society. Broadly, it is hoped that this study might demonstrate how the particular needs of immigrant groups, in this case statistically small ethno-cultural groups arriving with traumatic refugee experiences, require careful consideration in seeking to facilitate integration through enhanced social capital and self-help.
Driver Response to Rainfall on the Gardiner Expressway
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Unrau, Dan
Adverse weather conditions can increase travel risk. Understanding how drivers react to adverse weather, such as rainfall, can aid in the understanding of road safety patterns and traffic operations. This information can in turn be used to improve driver education as well as highway operation through improved signing or the introduction of intelligent highway systems. Hourly rainfall data collected from the Pearson International Airport weather station and City of Toronto traffic data collected at the study site on the Gardiner expressway were used to create event and control pairs. In total, 115 hours with rainfall were matched to control data one week before or after the rainfall event. The traffic sensor at the study site collected speed, volume, and occupancy data at 20-second intervals, which was aggregated to five minutes. In addition, speed deviation and headway data at the 5-minute interval were used for analysis purposes. Two methods were used to test the effects of rainfall on traffic variables and the relationships between them. Matched pair t-tests were used to determine the magnitude of change between event and control conditions for the volume, speed, speed deviation, and headway variables for congested and uncongested traffic conditions. In addition, stepwise multiple linear regression was used to test the effects of rainfall on speed-volume and volume-occupancy relationships. Results of the matched pair t-tests indicated that volumes, speeds, and speed deviations dropped in event conditions, while headways increased slightly. Changes tended to be greater for congested than uncongested conditions. Linear regression results indicated that changes in speed were sensitive to volume conditions, and changes in volume were sensitive to occupancy, although only to a limited extent. Overall, drivers respond to rainfall conditions by reducing both speed and speed deviations, and increasing headway. Reductions in speed are larger in congested conditions, while increases in headway are smaller. Taken in combination, drivers are taking positive steps in order to either maintain or improve safety levels.
Assessment of the Emission Trading Policy: A case study for the Acid Rain Program in the United States
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Wang, Qian
Various environmental standards have been established for the sake of public health and ecosystem diversity since environmental awareness was awakened in the late 1960s. However, the results were often unsatisfactory. Either environmental goals achieved were far from desired, or regional development was hampered due to some unpractical high environmental standards. The failure of these environmental standards resulted in innovations of environmental policy instruments to find practical environmental goals and methods approaching them scientifically. Another class of environmental policy instruments, so called economic incentive policies, is established based on environmental economics theory. A neo-classical economics framework is founded for setting appropriate environmental goals and assessing efficiency of environmental policies in reaching these goals. This thesis summarizes rationales and factors affecting the performance for environmental policy instruments under the neo-classical economic framework. Since the acid rain program, the first large-scale implementation of the emissions trading policy, has achieved great success in reducing SO₂ emissions from the electricity generators in the United States, the emission trading policy attracted many interests in this kind of environmental policy instrument. Many countries, such as China, plan to adopt the emissions trading policy to address various environmental problems. Hence, factors leading to the success of this program should be identified. Potential risks and problems must be addressed as well lest the emissions trading policy causes some problem during implementation. Feasibility of implementing an emissions trading policy will be discussed based on these results. Three kinds of geographic analyses, change detection, network analysis, and hot spots identification, are conducted in this thesis to study the effectiveness and efficiency of the acid rain program. It is found that the acid rain program is successful in improving the sustainability of the economic development in the United States. But the effectiveness is not as great as the high emissions cutting rate achieved in this program. In addition, the acid rain program lowers the compliance costs of achieving the environmental goal since the radius of the high quality coal service area doubles. Lastly, hot spots are found around the Ohio River valley and Los Angeles. Suggestions on integrating geographic factors into the economic framework are presented in order to eliminate the risk of causing severe environmental problems. Finally, the feasibility of migrating the emissions trading policy to China is discussed. Further work can be conducted in this direction to realize sustainable development quicker with lower costs.
Effect of water table drawdown on northern peatland methane dynamics: Implications for climate change
(Wiley, 2004-10-07) Strack, Maria; Waddington, James M.; Tuittila, Eeva-Stiina
As natural sources of methane (CH4), peatlands play an important role in the global carbon cycle. Climate models predict that evapotranspiration will increase under a 2 x CO2 scenario due to increased temperatures leading to lowered water tables at many northern latitudes. Given that the position of the water table within a peatland can have a large effect on CH4 emissions, climate change may alter the CH4 emissions from peatlands in this area. Research was conducted during 2001–2003 on natural and drained (8 years prior) sites within a poor fen in central Quebec. Flux measurements were made for each site at different microtopographical features that varied in depth to water table and vegetation cover. The quantity of CH4 dissolved in the pore water was measured in the field and the potential of the peat for CH4 production and consumption was determined in the laboratory. Methane emissions and storage were lower in the drained fen. Growing season CH4 emissions at the drained site were 55% lower than the control site, primarily due to significantly reduced fluxes from topographic highs (up to 97% reduction), while the flux from topographically low areas remained high. The maintenance of high fluxes at these hollow sites was related to hydrological and ecological effects of the water table drawdown. The removal of standing water removed a potential zone of CH4 oxidation. It also enabled plant colonization at these locations, leading to an increase in gross ecosystem photosynthesis (GEP). At the hollow sites, seasonal CH4 emissions were significantly correlated to seasonal GEP (R2 = 0.85). These results suggest that the response of northern peatland CH4 dynamics to climate change depends on the antecedent moisture conditions of the site. Moreover, ecological succession can play an important role for determining future CH4 emissions, particularly from wetter sites.
Group Preferences for Rural Amenities and Farmland Preservation in the Niagara Fruit Belt
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Prins, Peter Gideon
During the production of agricultural commodities, an agricultural landscape is simultaneously being produced. In many regions, agriculture is no longer valued for just the production of food and fibre but also for the social, cultural and environmental amenities associated with the landscape. The paradigm of multifunctional agriculture has become concerned with the joint production of agricultural products and these rural amenities. The loss of agricultural land especially in areas around the urban-rural fringe has greatly affected the demand for these rural amenities. In response, governments and volunteer organizations have developed programs to preserve farmland. The Niagara Region is home to some of the best fruit growing land in Canada but has a long history of fighting to maintain its farmland. Drawing from the multifunctional paradigm, this study analyzes the preference for different rural amenities and farmland preservation in this unique region. Survey and interviews conducted with both the non-farm population and farmers indicated that demand exists for maintaining rural amenities and for farmland preservation. Consideration of these preferences will enhance the development of farmland preservation in the Niagara Fruit Belt.
The effects of water table draw-down on the hydrology of a patterned fen peatland near Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Whittington, Peter
Hydrological response to climate change may alter the biogeochemical role that peatlands play in the global climate system, so an understanding of the nature and magnitude of this response is important. Simple hydrological models have predicted the effects of climate change on the hydrology of these systems, and estimated a ~20 cm water table draw down. This draw down amount was modeled to estimate the changing role that wetlands may play in global biogeochemical cycling, but failed to account for modifications of the peatland structure, which has profound implications for the hydrology of these systems. Volume change in compressible soils occurs as the result of different processes, mainly compression and oxidation. Compression occurs instantaneously as a change in water pressure (e. g. , from water table draw down) occurs and the peat matrix is unable to withstand the increased pressures and subsides. Oxidation is the long term chemical breakdown of the peat under aerobic conditions.

Consequently, in 2002 the water table in a fen peatland near Quebec City was lowered by ~20 cm (Experimental site), and the hydrological response was measured compared to a Control (no manipulation) and Drained site (previously drained c. 1994).

As a result of the draw-down, the surface in the Experimental pool decreased 5, 15 and 20 cm in the ridge, lawn and mat topographic locations, respectively resulting in an increased bulk density of ~60% in the Experimental lawn. Hydraulic conductivity (K) generally decreased with depth and from Control (25 to 125 cm) 10^-1 to 10^-5 cm s^-1 to Experimental (25 to 125 cm) 10^-2 to 10^-7 cm s^-1 and to Drained (25 to 75 cm) 10^-2 to 10^-6 cm s^-1. In similar topographic locations (ridge, lawn, mat), K trended Control>Experimental>Drained, usually by an order of magnitude.

Water table fluctuations in the Drained site were, on average, twice that of the Control site, whereas water table fluctuations within sites trended ridge>lawn>mat. The water table in the Control lawn was able to remain at a stable depth relative to the surface (~ -1 cm) because the lawn peat floats with changes in water table position. However, because of the denser, degraded peat, the Drained lawn peat was more rigid, forcing the water to fluctuate relative to the surface, further enhancing peat decay and densification.

While climatic change will not occur instantaneously the limitations of the experiment required an abrupt change in water table position (drainage). However, regardless of how volume change occurs in the peat (compression or oxidation) the direction of change to the hydraulic properties is the same (increased bulk density, decreased hydraulic conductivity) which affects the hydrology of these systems (increase water table fluctuations and decreases surface movement). Thus, valuable information can be obtained regarding the changing role of peatlands in global biogeochemical cycling processes.
Internet GIS for Air Quality Information Service for Dalian, China
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Shen, Lisai
Since the 1970s, environmental monitoring in China has formed a complete web across the country with over 2000 monitoring stations. China State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) has published an annual report on the State of the Environment in China since 1989. The Chinese government began to inform the public of environmental quality and major pollution incidents through major media since the late 1990s. However, environmental quality data has not been adequately used because of constraints on access and data sharing. The public and interested groups still lack access to environmental data and information. After examining the current air quality reporting systems of the US Environmental Protection Agency and the Ontario Ministry of Environment, reviewing current Internet GIS technology and sample websites, this thesis developed an ArcIMS website to publish air quality data and provide background information to the public for the city of Dalian, China. The purpose is to inform the public of daily air quality and health concerns, and to improve public awareness of environmental issues. A better-informed and educated public will be more likely to voluntarily conserve the environment in the long run. The development of this thesis can satisfy most basic expectations. However, due to the limitation of current Internet products like ArcIMS, symbology and connection with outside databases are not adequate. In addition some regular GIS analysis functions are not available to Internet GIS products. This development can be further improved to serve other environmental data to the public with better interactivity through coding. Similar Internet GIS products can be used in other Chinese cities to report their air quality data. For internal data sharing and reporting within the government, an open, interoperable distributed GIService is recommended, which is believed to be the future of Internet GIS.
Remote Sensing for Large-Area, Multi-Jurisdictional Habitat Mapping
(University of Waterloo, 2005) McDermid, Gregory
A framework designed to guide the effective use of remote sensing in large-area, multi-jurisdictional habitat mapping studies has been developed. Based on hierarchy theory and the remote sensing scene model, the approach advocates (i) identifying the key physical attributes operating on the landscape; (ii) selecting a series of suitable remote sensing data whose spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal characteristics correspond to the attributes of interest; and (iii) applying an intelligent succession of scale-sensitive data processing techniques that are capable of delivering the desired information. The approach differs substantially from the single-map, classification-based strategies that have largely dominated the wildlife literature, and is designed to deliver a sophisticated, multi-layer information base that is capable of supporting a variety of management objectives. The framework was implemented in the creation of a multi-layer database composed of land cover, crown closure, species composition, and leaf area index (LAI) phenology over more than 100,000 km² in west-central Alberta. Generated through a combination of object-oriented classification, conventional regression, and generalized linear models, the products represent a high-quality, flexible information base constructed over an exceptionally challenging multi-jurisdictional environment. A quantitative comparison with two alternative large-area information sources—the Alberta Vegetation Inventory and a conventional classification-based land-cover map—showed that the thesis database had the highest map quality and was best capable of explaining both individual—and population-level resource selection by grizzly bears.
The Geographical and Spatial Imaginings of Islamist Extremism/Terrorism
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Kowalski, Jeremy
The contemporary Islamist extremist/terrorist phenomenon has emerged as one of the most significant threats to both regional and international peace, security, and stability. As the international community struggles to develop a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon in its present context, the academic community should respond and discuss this subject from all relevant disciplinary backgrounds and perspectives. If effective and successful policies, strategies, and tactics are to be developed in order to adequately confront these transnational actors, all dimensions of the subject need to be explored. This thesis examines certain aspects of the under-theorized geographical dimension of Islamist extremist/terrorism. Focusing on Al Qaeda and other members of the Islamist extremist/terrorist constituency, this thesis explores the geographical and spatial imagination of the Islamist terrorist subject and deconstructs the geographical and spatial imaginings of Islamist extremism/terrorism through critically analyzing the diffuse international structure of Islamist terrorism and its related groups, the cultural ?space? Islamist extremist/terrorist actors occupy, and the function of landscape in the identity and subjectivity of Islamist extremist/terrorism.
Abiotic Stresses to Vegetation Re-establishment in a Cutover Bog Contaminated with Seawater
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Montemayor, Marilou B.
Part of a cutover bog in Pokesudie Island, New Brunswick, Canada was contaminated with seawater and was still largely devoid of vegetation 5 years after the event and was consequently chosen for study. The study area consisted of rectangular fields with cambered surface that sloped down (2%) to the drainage ditches on both sides. Across this slope zones were created: Up-, Mid- and Low- areas on either side of the centerline of fields. Two field experiments were conducted to determine abiotic stresses to plant re-establishment in terms of hydrology and peat characteristics along this cambered surface. The general objective was to identify microsites or zones that could be suitable to the introduction of wetland halophytes Juncus balticus Willd. and Spartina pectinata Link obtained from nearby salt marshes.

In the first experiment, cylindrical J. balticus sods were transplanted into the Up- and Low- areas, at 1, 3, 5, 10 and 20 d of incubation (in May 2005) with measurements made on the Outer and Inner annular sod sections, replicated over 4 blocks. Moisture (% dry weight basis (dwb)) reached maximum values 1 day after transplantation, 84±0. 05 for Outer and 103±0. 07 for Inner sod section. Salinity (dS m^-1) in sods due to ingress of sodium (Na⁺ ) and chloride (Cl^-) reached values of the surrounding peat 3 days after transplantation, 3. 52±1. 06 for Inner sod section and 4. 11±0. 99 for Outer sod section in Up-areas, and 1. 76±0. 24 for Inner sod section and 2. 57±0. 28 for Outer sod section in Low-areas. Maximum decrease in pH was at 5 days after transplantation, in Outer sod section in the Up-areas (from 5. 89 to 4. 88±0. 14) which was much higher than the pH range of 3-4 of the surrounding peat. This was due to the buffering capacity of calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) in sods which did not change in concentration after 20 days of incubation. Therefore, Inner sod sections were less affected by the surrounding peat compared to the Outer sod sections, suggesting that a larger sod volume may alleviate stressful conditions for a longer time at transplantation and consequently allow greater time for adaptation.

In the second experiment, J. balticus and S. pectinata were transplanted on the 3 Locations Up-, Mid- and Low- areas, replicated over 10 blocks; and peat characteristics were measured at Depths 0-5, 5-10, 10-15 and 15-20 cm 5 times during the study period May-August 2005. Survival of J. balticus was poorest (27. 5±8. 3 %) in the Low-areas compared to 68. 5±8. 9 % in the Up- and 58. 5±8. 7% in the Mid- areas. S. pectinata survival was very good at all Locations (89±5. 3, 91. 6±3. 1 and 84. 2±4. 4 for Up-, Mid- and Low- areas, respectively) having better adaptation to early season waterlogged conditions. Waterlogged conditions resulted from a perched water table during the early part of the growing season (May-June) and were alleviated only upon the complete thaw of the frozen peat layer on 8 July. Thereafter, important changes in hydrology and peat characteristics occurred: water table depths decreased from -8. 5±1. 7 and -1. 6±1. 2 cm on 26 May, to -51. 5±2. 5 and -40. 7±2. 4 cm by 9 August in Up- and Low-areas, respectively; redox potentials at 12 cm depth increased from 26 June (190. 9±8, 175±10. 8 and 109. 2±29. 4 mV) to 9 August (282. 8±8, 302. 8±14. 3 and 312. 3±29. 6 mV) in the Up-, Mid- and Low-areas, respectively which showed that anaerobic conditions were maintained throughout the study period; decreased moisture content from 1256. 8±61. 9, 1667. 4±126. 3 and 1728. 6±153 on 30 May, to 851. 7±21. 2, 874. 6±47 and 1008. 2±57. 5 % dwb on 25 July) which caused increased dry bulk density (from 0. 07±0. 002, 0. 06±0. 003 and 0. 07±0. 01 to 0. 09±0. 003, 0. 09±0. 005 and 0. 08±0. 004) in the Up-, Mid- and Low-areas, respectively; and increased electrical conductivity (salinity) especially on the 0-5cm surface (from 1. 9±0. 13, 1. 8±0. 31 and 1. 5±0. 29 to 18±1. 9, 17. 5±1. 1 and 12. 2±1 dS m^-1) which also caused decreased pH (from 3. 5±0. 04, 3. 5±0. 08 and 3. 6±0. 01 to 2. 85±0. 04, 2. 85±0. 01 and 2. 9±0. 03) in the Up-, Mid- and Low-areas, respectively. Therefore, spring flooding followed by high surface salinity in summer precludes plant establishment by seeding and explains the current lack of spontaneous revegetation. Waterlogged conditions were of greater magnitude and duration at lower elevation areas unfavourable to J. balticus survival but salinity levels were high in the Up- and Mid-areas.

In the subsequent part of the second experiment, plants of J. balticus and S. pectinata grown in the study area and those collected from marshes were divided into above- and below- ground parts and accumulation of salt ions in plant tissues were determined to understand the species' salt-tolerance mechanism, as well as the accumulation of potentially toxic levels of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Both plant species had similar accumulations (mmol kg^-1 dry wt,) of Na⁺ (474. 3±41 and 468. 3±31. 7, respectively) and Cl^- (314. 9±21. 9 and 310. 5±27. 5, respectively) in the above-ground parts but differed in how they managed Na⁺. J. balticus accumulated more Na⁺ in below-ground parts (659. 3±88. 7) and had limited transport to the above-ground parts, while S. pectinata accumulated and excreted Na⁺ in the above-ground parts and had less accumulation in the below-ground parts (397. 4±25. 1). S. pectinata maintained (313. 1±23. 8 in marsh vs. 292. 4±26. 2 in bog) and J. balticus increased (84. 2±1. 2 in marsh vs. 531. 2±38. 6 in bog) K⁺-selectivity in the shoots, a key requirement for survival in saline conditions. Compared with their respective marsh plants, S. pectinata had more salinity-tolerance than J. balticus primarily through its maintenance of Ca²⁺ (21. 5±1. 7 in marsh vs. 35. 6±3. 8 in bog) compared to a decrease in J. balticus (144. 7±12. 5 in marsh vs. 41±3. 7 in bog). Furthermore, Fe and Mn uptake in both species decreased but reached critical Fe-deficiency levels (1. 1±0. 1 mmol kg^-1 dry wt,) only in S. pectinata grown in drier areas.

It is concluded that local conditions of waterlogging (especially in lower elevation areas) and high salinity and low pH (notably in the upper elevation areas) were favourable to the survival of S. pectinata in all areas and J. balticus only in upper elevation areas. Sod transplanting may alleviate the acidity problem and depending on sod volume may delay the effects of harsh conditions of the cutover bog. However, long-term survival and growth of both species in drier areas may be constrained by deficiency in calcium in J. balticus and iron in S. pectinata.
Impact and Benefit Agreements and the Political Ecology of Mineral Development in Nunavut
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Hitch, Michael
Mining has been a major economic activity in the Canadian Arctic for the last century. It has made a valuable contribution to the development of this fragile economy and to the living standards of its inhabitants. The benefits include jobs and income, tax revenues and the social programs they finance, foreign exchange earnings, frontier development, support for local infrastructure, and economic diversification into a broad range of activities beyond the life of the mine. These benefits emerge as the result of activities and influences of several actors that exercise differing degrees of power, whether coercive or exchange by nature. These benefits, however, do not come without costs, particularly to Northern peoples who have suffered historically from the inequitable distribution of resources benefits and inevitable, adverse socio-cultural and biophysical impacts of rapid resource development.

Impact and Benefit Agreements (IBAs) are a mandatory aspect of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement. Proponents wishing to develop natural resources on Inuit-owned land are required to negotiate and complete an IBA with the Regional Inuit Organization. These agreements have evolved from simple socio-economic contracts, to multiparty assemblages of agreements designed to promote sustainability beyond the operating life of the mine.

A political ecology approach was taken. Using this approach, it was determined that the distribution of decision-making power appears to be unequal and largely confined to the Industrial and Regional Inuit Association actors. As a result, other affected interests were marginalized in the process including members of the local community, environmental and other non-governmental organizations, and federal, territorial and hamlet government actors.

Nevertheless, the use of IBAs signal a recognition on the part of all stakeholders that historic mining practices are no longer acceptable and that it is now necessary to move towards a more equitable and sustainable approach to mineral development.

In order to answer the question of an IBA's usefulness as a tool of sustainability, a set of sustainable mining criteria was developed and used to assess whether, in fact, the agreement could be used to promote a more sustainable path to mining development in the North. After the application of the criteria to IBAs in general and to one case study in particular, which fell under the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, it was discovered that the IBA instrument is limited in its utility—at least in terms of its current structure. However, in conjunction with other agreements and review processes, the IBAs utility as a tool of sustainability may be enhanced.

By the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement's very nature, decision-making ability on behalf of the community is restricted to the Kitikmeot Inuit Association that only represents the interests of beneficiaries of the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement and the industrial proponent. Opportunities for broader community (non-beneficiaries) input appear limited, thus restricting the usefulness of IBAs as a tool of community sustainability, at least until this weakness is addressed. Moreover, on a broader level of analysis, it should also be noted that the IBAs still are designed to operate within the global, liberal, capitalist system which itself leads to power imbalances. Nevertheless, it should be noted that IBAs signal a recognition on the part of all stakeholders, that historic mining practices are no longer acceptable and that it is now necessary to move towards a more equitable and sustainable approach to mineral development.
Tourism as a Livelihood Strategy in Indigenous Communities: Case Studies from Taiwan
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Tao, Teresa Chang-Hung
Tourism has become an important option for economic development and the cultural survival of aboriginal people, yet the academic work has overlooked an issue of cultural sustainability and the majority of the literature on indigenous tourism is from a non-indigenous perspective. Although the sustainable livelihood framework does not clearly address the cultural part of life, the approach requires that activities, such as tourism, are placed in a broader context so that they can be examined from an indigenous perspective on sustainability. The purpose of this study is to assess the role that tourism is playing in two indigenous communities' livelihood strategies in Taiwan from an indigenous perspective using the sustainable livelihood framework as an organizing framework. The examination of the evolution of livelihood strategies is the main focus of the study. A review of literature identifies weaknesses in the concepts of sustainable development and sustainable tourism and provides legitimacy for using the sustainable livelihood approach to examine the roles that tourism plays in indigenous people's daily lives. Culture is embedded in daily life and the approach allows the researcher to explore the meanings behind people's daily activities. Also, tourism needs to be placed in a broader context in order to identify whether any linkages exist between it and other sectors of the economy and how tourism can better fit in with exiting livelihood strategies. The research is a collaborative study of two Cou aboriginal communities (i. e. , Shanmei and Chashan) in central Taiwan using qualitative research methods. The sustainable livelihood framework is used as a vehicle for guiding research and analysis. Results indicate that Cou traditional livelihoods and their traditional social structure have been closely linked. The shift of Cou livelihoods from self-sustaining in the past to being linked increasingly to the global economic market system at present comes from a variety of external and internal factors (e. g. , policy, history, politics, macro-economic conditions). The promotion of tourism development and cultural industries by the government in recent years has provided aboriginal people with a new opportunity (tourism) in which they can make use of their culture as an advantage (culture as an attraction) to possibly reverse the inferior position. In addition to being an attraction for economic development, culture has many implications for the way things are done and for the distribution of benefits. In both villages, people employ a wide range of resources and livelihoods strategies to support themselves. Tourism has been incorporated into the livelihoods of both villages in forms of employment (regular and occasional) and various collective and self-owned enterprises (e. g. , restaurants, homestays, café, food stalls, handicraft stores and campsites). Tourism activities have the potential both to complement and to compete with other economic activities in various forms. Conflicts between tourism-related economic activities and other activities may not be obvious in terms of the use of land, water and time. The benefits and costs of each tourism activity experienced by different stakeholder groups (mainly by age and gender) vary, depending on different personal situations. The sustainable livelihoods framework was examined and used to assess the context and forms in which tourism might contribute to sustainable livelihood outcomes. Institutional processes and organizational structures are one main factor determining whether different assets, tangible and intangible, are accumulated or depleted on individual, household, and community scales. The comparison of the two cases revealed that, in the context of capitalist market economy in which people pursue the maximization of individual interests, the following situation is most likely to lead to sustainable outcome (socio-culturally, economically, and environmentally) in the context of indigenous communities. That is tourism enterprises need to be operated through institutions with a communal mechanism and through efficient operation of the communities' organizations based on collective knowledge guided by Cou culture. Sustainable livelihood thinking is useful to the concept of sustainable development because it can be used as an analytical and practical tool for guiding studies of environment and development. It also serves as a means of integrating three modes of thinking: environmental thinking which stresses sustainability, development thinking which stresses production and growth, and livelihood thinking which stresses sustenance for the poor. The approach facilitates examination of the reality of aboriginal people and poor people in rural and remote areas. The approach focuses on the local impacts of change, recognizes the complexity of people's lives, acknowledges that people have different and sometimes complex livelihood strategies and addresses benefits that are defined by the marginalized communities themselves. It acknowledges the dynamism of the factors that influence livelihoods: it recognizes that change occurs and people accommodate, learn from change and plan, adapt and respond to change. It focuses on accommodating traditional knowledge and skills to create conditions for marginalized communities to enhance their well-being. It assists in understanding that traditional knowledge and its innovation provide a basis for the development of coping mechanisms and adaptive strategies to buffer the forces which threaten livelihoods. The sustainable livelihood framework is useful because it places the interests of local people at the centre. Such an approach incorporates tourism as one component of development, particularly for indigenous people, and explores how positive development impacts can be expanded and negative ones can be reduced. However, unless supplemented, the framework may not do justice to the importance of culture and the prominent roles played by key individuals. Keywords: Indigenous people, sustainable livelihoods, culture, sustainability, Taiwan
Developing a Suitability Index for Residential Land Use: A case study in Dianchi Drainage Area
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Mu, Yao
The conflict between residential land and agriculture land in China is increasingly sharpened, especially when some urban development began to sprawl to the suburban and rural areas. In order to plan land resources properly, land suitability assessment is often conducted to determine which type of land use is most appropriate for a particular location.

The main objective of this study is to examine how land suitability assessment methods could be used in land planning processes in the Dianchi Drainage Area (DDA) in Southwest China to identify where future residential development should be located. The 1991 Toronto Waterfront Plan and the more recent 2005 Ontario Greenbelt Plan are examined and used to develop a framework which describes the potential for land suitability assessment in the DDA. Data limitations did not permit a suitability analysis to be completed for the DDA, however a description of methodologies for conducting residential land suitability analysis and required data are presented based on a review of relevant literature. The paper concludes with a discussion of the feasibility of land suitability in the DDA and other areas in China and also suggests opportunities for future research.

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