Police Militarization in Canada: Examining Racial Disparities in Use of Force and Understanding the Consequences of Citizen-Police Encounters Using a Mixed-Methods Investigation

Abstract

Despite being a critical issue in the contemporary discussion on police reform in Canada, the research investigating tactical units is still in its infancy. The existing research in this area primarily focuses on the proliferation of police militarization and its argued incursion into more general elements of patrol policing. Absent from this discussion is an analysis of use of force, racial disparities in use of force outcomes, and lived experiences of encounters with tactical units. This dissertation addresses these gaps in the literature by applying a mixed-methods approach to investigate (a) the intersections between tactical unit use of force and race and (b) the social, economic, and psychosocial challenges facing individuals who have encountered these militarized policing elements.

The quantitative aspect of the research relies on the use of freedom of information requests to collect use of force reports submitted by tactical units between January 1, 2020 and December 31, 2022. The study employs the racial disproportionality and disparity index mandated by Ontario’s Anti-Racism Act. Furthermore, the quantitative aspect of this research applies a series of univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistical analyses to develop a knowledge base in this area and find what, if any, variables are statistically significant predictors of use of force. The qualitative aspect of this research relies on semi-structured interviews with 25 individuals who have, directly or vicariously, encountered a police tactical unit and asks a series of questions concerning the nature of the encounter and its consequences for the individual and, if relevant, their family unit.

The findings of the quantitative research demonstrate that Black people are grossly overrepresented in use of force incidents involving tactical units. Unlike their White counterparts, Black people are less frequently armed in these incidents and more likely to encounter tactical units in proactive (planned) deployments. The multivariate analysis also finds that, when controlling for a range of other variables, Black people are statistically more likely to have a firearm pointed at them. Beyond the findings central to this research, the dissertation also finds evidence suggesting significant and systemic underreporting of use of force. I argue that the reporting framework is not intended to address systemic discrimination but functions to legitimize police use of force and expand militarized policing. I argue that race-based data collection functions as a form of racialized knowledge construction rather than a mechanism through which systemic racism may be addressed. The qualitative research findings demonstrate the wide-ranging social, economic, and psychological consequences of encounters with police tactical units. The results indicate that individuals and families face various financial challenges, such as the destruction and loss of personal property, damage to their residence, and loss of access to social housing. Some participants experience theft, and others report having to pay to repair financial costs sustained. Experiences of violence are also common among these interactions with police, as are social stigma and a range of psychological outcomes owing to the traumatic nature of these incidents. Black participants also draw on the idea of communal trauma and suggest these encounters with tactical units can be further contextualized as a tool of racialized social control directed against the Black community. The qualitative accounts also demonstrate the absence of formal institutional support and the reliance on informal support networks to manage these challenges. Finally, the accounts indicate a significant disruption to the family unit, including a loss of housing and disruptions in familial relationships.

This research relies on the use of critical race perspectives to contextualize the use of tactical units as a colourblind form of social control disproportionately applied against the Black community. The institution maintains the veneer of race neutrality by making appeals to crime control and public safety, which facilitates the expansion of aggressive policing practices and exacerbates existing racial and socioeconomic inequalities. The dissertation also offers a series of recommendations.