Loyalty and Righteousness: Confucianism and the Chinese Community in British Columbia, 1923–1960

Abstract

In 1904, the Qing monarchy announced the Presented Schools Regulation policy, which sought to modernize education in China by introducing a scientific curriculum to complement the classical curriculum rooted in Confucianism. At the same time, ongoing criticism of the ancient Chinese philosophy as the cause of contemporary social woes culminated in the May Fourth and New Culture Movements. As a result, the hold of Confucianism on Chinese society began to weaken over successive generations. Yet, these intellectual developments did not affect the Chinese in British Columbia, who continued to place their faith in Confucianism as an ideology that would bring harmony to society, especially in a society rife with anti-Chinese discrimination.

This thesis examines the influence of Confucianism on the Chinese in British Columbia between 1923, the year the Chinese Immigration Act was imposed, and 1960, when Wong Foon Sien, a vocal advocate for Chinese immigration rights, resigned from the presidency of the Chinese Benevolent Association. It examines the extent to which the Chinese adhered to the teachings of Confucianism. On the one hand, the Chinese practised certain customs and continued to shape their relationships in accordance with neo-Confucianism, the same traditions criticized by the intellectuals in China. On the other, their ideals for the future were defined by the original Confucianism preserved in the Analects and Mencius. Throughout these years, the Chinese built schools to pass on traditional values and language, created Chinese Benevolent Associations to protect themselves from discrimination, contributed to the war efforts of China and Canada during the Second World War, and lobbied for fewer immigration restrictions after the repeal of the Immigration Act in 1947. In these endeavours, the Chinese demonstrated Confucian virtues of zhong (loyalty), yi (righteousness), and even ren (benevolence). This thesis elucidates Confucian principles as written in the Analects and Mencius and examines the motivations and actions of the Chinese from 1923 to 1960 through a Confucian framework. The research demonstrates that the values of Confucianism were still relevant to the Chinese who grew up in British Columbia during the first two decades of the twentieth century and continued to guide their actions throughout their lives.