| dc.description.abstract | Epithelial cell lines, RTgill-W1 and RTL-W1 from respectively the gill and liver of rainbow trout, Onchorhynchus mykiss (Walbum), were used to investigate the role of p53 in the cellular survival pathways of fish and to evaluate the potential impact on fish of the emerging contaminants, benzotriazoles (BTRs) and benzothiazoles (BTHs). For studying p53, RTgill-W1 was used with two p53 inhibitors, which are termed pifithrins- (PFT-) or 2-phenylethynesulfonamide (PES) and pifithrin-α (PFT-α). Both agents were developed for cancer chemotherapy but also have been used widely to explore p53 functions in mammals but not in fish. PFT- or 2-phenylethynesulfonamide (PES) was identified as an inhibitor of p53 translocation to the mitochondria but subsequently shown to be a HSP70 inhibitor as well. PFT-α was recognized as an inhibitor of p53-mediated transcription. Cellular toxicity was evaluated for seven BTRs: 1H-Benzotriazole (BTR), 4-methyl-1H-benzotriazole (4MBTR), 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole (5MBTR), tolytriazole (TT), 5,6-Dimethyl-1H-benzotriazole monohydrate (DM), 5-Chlorobenzotriazole (5CBTR) and Hydroxybenzotriazole (OHBTR). The BTHs were Benzothiazole (BTH), 3,3’-diethylthia dicarbocyanine iodide (DTDC), C.I. Sulphur orange 1 (SO), 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (2MBTH), Zinc 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (ZincMBTH), Sodium 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (NaMBTH), 2-Hydroxy-benzothiazole (OHBTH), 2-Aminobenzothiazole (2ABTH), C.I. Vat yellow 2 (VY), N,N-Dicyclohexyl-2-benzothiazolsulfene amide (NNA), 2,2'-Dithiobis (benzothiazole) (DBTH) and 2-(p-aminophenyl)-6-methylbenzothiazole-7-sulfonic acid (MBTHS).
PES had complex actions on RTgill-W1. As judged by three viability assays, cells were killed by 24 h exposures to PES, but cell death was blocked by the anti-oxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Cell death had several hallmarks of apoptosis: DNA laddering, nuclear fragmentation, Annexin V staining, mitochondrial membrane potential decline, and caspase activation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production peaked in several hours after the addition of PES and before cell death. HSP70 and BiP levels were higher in cultures treated with PES for 24 h, but this was blocked by NAC. As well, PES treatment caused HSP70, BiP and p53 to aggregate and become detergent-insoluble, and this too was prevented by NAC. Of several possible scenarios to explain the results, the following one is the simplest: PES enhances the generation of ROS, possibly by inhibiting the anti-oxidant actions of p53 and HSP70. ER (Endoplasmic reticulum) stress arises from the ROS and from PES inhibiting the chaperone activities of HSP70. The ER stress in turn initiates the unfolded protein response (UPR), but this fails to restore ER homeostasis so proteins aggregate and cells die. Despite these multiple actions, PES should be useful for studying fish cellular survival pathways.
PFT-α had unexpected and expected actions on RTgill-W1. When dosed indirectly into RTgill-W1 cultures, PFT-α did not reduce cell viability but caused a transient rise in the mitotic index and a disruption in cytoskeletal microtubules. This suggests for the first time that PFT-α targets the assembly and disassembly of microtubules either directly through an off-target action on tubulin or indirectly through an on-target action on p53-regulated transcription. In cultures with or without FBS, PFT-α at 5.25 g/ml completely arrested proliferation. When FBS was present, PFT-α increased the number of polyploid cells over 12 days. This suggests that like in mammals, p53 regulates ploidy in fish.
BTRs at high concentrations elicited several toxicological responses in the rainbow trout cell lines. Although DM was not cytotoxic to RTgill-W1, BRT, 4MBRT, 5MBTR, TT, and OHBTR were at concentrations above 15 mg/L, with 5CBTR being the most cytotoxic. Shortly after BTR addition, cultures had elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) but the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) failed to block cell killing. Cell death was neither accompanied by hallmarks of apoptosis nor blocked by necrosis inhibitor IM-54 or Necrostatin-1, suggesting that cell killing was by neither apoptosis nor necroptosis. The comet assay gave positive results but only at cytotoxic BTR concentrations, suggesting that as judged with this measure of genotoxicity the BTRs were not genotoxicants. Cytochrome P4501A levels in RTL-W1 were elevated slightly by BTR, OHBTR, 4MBRT, and 5MBTR and clearly by 5CBTR and TT. Thus some BTRs might be able to exert toxic actions through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR).
Like BTRs, BTHs at high concentrations elicited several toxicological responses in the rainbow trout cell lines. NNA, DBTH and MBTHS were not cytotoxic to RTgill-W1, but BTH, DTDC, SO, 2MBTH, ZincMBTH, NaMBTH, OHBTH, 2ABTH, and VY were. The EC50 values of the other BTHs in one and twelve day exposures ranged from 0.05 to 396 mg/L, with DTDC being the most cytotoxic. Shortly after addition of cytotoxic BTHs to cultures, reactive oxygen species (ROS) were elevated, but the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) failed to block cell killing. Cell death was neither accompanied by hallmarks of apoptosis nor blocked by IM-54 or Necrostatin-1, suggesting that cell killing was by neither apoptosis nor necroptosis. At non-cytotoxic BTH concentrations, the comet assay gave positive results only for BTH, suggesting that BTH was a possible genotoxicant. NaMBTH, ZincMBTH, SO, VY, OHBTH, 2ABTH, MBTHS and NNA elevated cytochrome P4501A levels in RTL-W1, weakly for most but strongly for 2ABTH and OHBTH and MBTHS. Thus some BTHs might be able to exert toxic actions through the AhR.
PES had complex actions on RTgill-W1. As judged by three viability assays, cells were killed by 24 h exposures to PES, but cell death was blocked by the anti-oxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Cell death had several hallmarks of apoptosis: DNA laddering, nuclear fragmentation, Annexin V staining, mitochondrial membrane potential decline, and caspase activation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production peaked in several hours after the addition of PES and before cell death. HSP70 and BiP levels were higher in cultures treated with PES for 24 h, but this was blocked by NAC. As well, PES treatment caused HSP70, BiP and p53 to aggregate and become detergent-insoluble, and this too was prevented by NAC. Of several possible scenarios to explain the results, the following one is the simplest: PES enhances the generation of ROS, possibly by inhibiting the anti-oxidant actions of p53 and HSP70. ER (Endoplasmic reticulum) stress arises
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from the ROS and from PES inhibiting the chaperone activities of HSP70. The ER stress in turn initiates the unfolded protein response (UPR), but this fails to restore ER homeostasis so proteins aggregate and cells die. Despite these multiple actions, PES should be useful for studying fish cellular survival pathways.
PFT-α had unexpected and expected actions on RTgill-W1. When dosed indirectly into RTgill-W1 cultures, PFT-α did not reduce cell viability but caused a transient rise in the mitotic index and a disruption in cytoskeletal microtubules. This suggests for the first time that PFT-α targets the assembly and disassembly of microtubules either directly through an off-target action on tubulin or indirectly through an on-target action on p53-regulated transcription. In cultures with or without FBS, PFT-α at 5.25 μg/ml completely arrested proliferation. When FBS was present, PFT-α increased the number of polyploid cells over 12 days. This suggests that like in mammals, p53 regulates ploidy in fish.
BTRs at high concentrations elicited several toxicological responses in the rainbow trout cell lines. Although DM was not cytotoxic to RTgill-W1, BRT, 4MBRT, 5MBTR, TT, and OHBTR were at concentrations above 15 mg/L, with 5CBTR being the most cytotoxic. Shortly after BTR addition, cultures had elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) but the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) failed to block cell killing. Cell death was neither accompanied by hallmarks of apoptosis nor blocked by necrosis inhibitor IM-54 or Necrostatin-1, suggesting that cell killing was by neither apoptosis nor necroptosis. The comet assay gave positive results but only at cytotoxic BTR concentrations, suggesting that as judged with this measure of genotoxicity the BTRs were not genotoxicants. Cytochrome P4501A levels in RTL-W1 were elevated slightly by BTR, OHBTR, 4MBRT, and 5MBTR and clearly by 5CBTR and TT. Thus some BTRs might be able to exert toxic actions through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR).
Like BTRs, BTHs at high concentrations elicited several toxicological responses in the rainbow trout cell lines. NNA, DBTH and MBTHS were not cytotoxic to RTgill-W1, but BTH, DTDC, SO, 2MBTH, ZincMBTH, NaMBTH, OHBTH, 2ABTH, and VY were. The EC50 values of the other BTHs in one and twelve day exposures ranged from 0.05 to 396 mg/L, with DTDC being the most cytotoxic. Shortly after addition of cytotoxic BTHs to cultures, reactive oxygen species (ROS) were elevated, but the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) failed to block cell killing. Cell death was neither accompanied by hallmarks of apoptosis nor blocked by IM-54 or
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Necrostatin-1, suggesting that cell killing was by neither apoptosis nor necroptosis. At non-cytotoxic BTH concentrations, the comet assay gave positive results only for BTH, suggesting that BTH was a possible genotoxicant. NaMBTH, ZincMBTH, SO, VY, OHBTH, 2ABTH, MBTHS and NNA elevated cytochrome P4501A levels in RTL-W1, weakly for most but strongly for 2ABTH and OHBTH and MBTHS. Thus some BTHs might be able to exert toxic actions through the AhR. | en |
