Environment (Faculty of)

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10-Year Changes of Food Consumption and Carbon Footprint in Ontario
(University of Waterloo, 2018-06-19) Topcu, Basak
What humans eat can have a significant impact on ecosystems and the climate. In order to attain the climate targets to keep global warming below 1.5 degrees Celsius, it is important to reduce consumption of carbon-intensive food products. Many studies have quantified the environmental impacts of food consumption. However, most of these prior diet-related environmental assessment studies have evaluated impacts based on a snapshot of food consumption, instead of evaluating the changes in food-related environmental impacts over a period of time. Understanding these changes is important in determining what factors affect consumer food consumption behaviours that would shift their food consumption patterns towards less resource intensive products. This thesis evaluates the changes in food, nutritional value, and carbon footprint (CF) of dietary patterns in Ontario in the last decade, broadly in three steps. First, change assessment is conducted by comparing the overall food consumption based on the 24-hour recall food intake data from the Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition in 2004 and 2015. Then seven dietary patterns are identified by analyzing the food types of each survey participant and Life Cycle Assessment is used to quantify CF of these dietary patterns. Canada’s Food Guide is used to assess the nutritional quality of actual dietary patterns, and then alternative nutritionally-balanced and low carbon dietary patterns are formulated and their CF is determined. The results suggest that: 1) overall, Ontarians are eating less red meat and more poultry and drinking less beverages high in sugar content; 2) Ontarians continue to overconsume daily protein, possibly because they do not consider protein from non-meat products, such as milk and cheese; 3) the CF of Ontarians food consumption has decreased in the last decade, specifically due to reductions in beef, which is the most carbon-intensive food product; and 4) also, the CF of nutritionally-balanced diets has decreased for all dietary patterns, only exception is Pescatarian that showed a slight increase. Changes in types and amounts of food consumed could be a result of health concerns, increase in climate change awareness, economic or cultural fluctuations. Overall, this thesis improves our understanding of the CF and nutritional assessment of Ontarians’ current food consumption and how this has changed in the last 10 years. By determining and understanding changes, this research could also be helpful to identify strategies to shift Ontarians’ food consumption behaviors towards nutritionally-balanced and low carbon-intensive food choices.
The 2009 H1N1 Health Sector Pandemic Response in Remote and Isolated First Nation Communities of Sub-Arctic Ontario, Canada
(University of Waterloo, 2011-05-26T16:43:49Z) Charania, Nadia A.
On June 11, 2009, the World Health Organization declared a global influenza pandemic due to a novel influenza A virus subtype of H1N1. Public health emergencies, such as an influenza pandemic, can potentially impact disadvantaged populations disproportionately due to underlying social factors. Canada’s First Nation population was severely impacted by the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic. Most First Nation communities suffer from poor living conditions, impoverished lifestyles, lack of access to adequate health care, and uncoordinated health care delivery. Also, there are vulnerable populations who suffer from co-morbidities who are at a greater risk of falling ill. Moreover, First Nation communities that are geographically remote (nearest service center with year-round road access is located over 350 kilometers away) and isolated (only accessible by planes year-round) face additional challenges. For example, transportation of supplies and resources may be limited, especially during extreme weather conditions. Therefore, remote and isolated First Nation communities face unique challenges which must be addressed by policy planners in order to mitigate the injustice that may occur during a public health emergency. The Assembly of First Nations noted that there has been very little inclusion of First Nations’ input into current federal and provincial pandemic plans. Disadvantaged groups know best how they will be affected by a public health emergency and are able to identify barriers and solutions. Therefore, the objective of my research was to gain retrospective insight into the barriers faced by three remote and isolated First Nation communities of sub-arctic Ontario (i.e., Fort Albany, Attawapiskat, and Kashechewan) during their 2009 H1N1 pandemic response. Culturally-appropriate community-based suggestions for improvement of existing community-level pandemic plans were also elicited. Collected data informed modifications to community-level pandemic plans, thereby directly applying research findings. Being a qualitative community-based participatory study, First Nation community members were involved in many aspects of this research. Semi-directed interviews were conducted with adult key informants (n=13) using purposive sampling of participants representing the three main sectors responsible for health care services (i.e., federal health centers, provincial hospitals, and Band Councils). Data were manually transcribed and coded using deductive and inductive thematic analysis to reveal similarities and differences experienced within and between each community (and government body) regarding their respective pandemic response. Another round of semi-directed interviews (n=4) and community pandemic committee meetings were conducted to collect additional information to guide the modifications to the community-level pandemic plans. Reported barriers due to being geographically remote and isolated included the following: overcrowding in houses, insufficient human resources, and inadequate community awareness. Primary barriers faced by government bodies responsible for health care delivery were reported as follows: receiving contradicting governmental guidelines and direction from many sources, lack of health information sharing, and insufficient details in community-level pandemic plans. Suggested areas for improvement included increasing human resources (i.e., nurses and trained health care professionals), funding for supplies, and community awareness. Additionally, participants recommended that complementary communication plans should be developed. As suggested by participants, community-specific information was added to update community-level pandemic plans. Remote and isolated First Nation communities faced some barriers during their 2009 H1N1 health sector pandemic response. Government bodies should focus efforts to provide more support in terms of human resources, monies, and education. In addition, various government organizations should collaborate to improve housing conditions, timely access to resources, and the level of coordination regarding health care delivery. Furthermore, as pandemic plans are dynamic, government bodies should continue to aide First Nation communities with updating their community-level pandemic plans to satisfy their evolving needs. These recommendations should be addressed so that remote and isolated western James Bay First Nation communities and other similar communities can be better prepared for the next public health emergency.
3D GIS Modelling of Road and Building Material Stocks: A Case Study of Grenada
(University of Waterloo, 2022-05-24) Ye, Lingfei
Recent years have witnessed significant material stock accumulation within built environments, resulting in substantial environmental issues, such as greenhouse gas emissions, toxic or harmful wastes, resource scarcity, and land use conflicts. Quantitative analysis of in-use material stocks is important for assessing resource appropriation, improving the socio-economic metabolism model, and enhancing adaptive capacity to climate change. This research presents a bottom-up GIS spatial approach for modelling in-use road and building material stocks in Grenada, a small island state. LiDAR data were applied to the estimation of building heights and building stocks to improve current material stock accounting approaches. A 3D web-based application was developed to visualize material stocks in 3D building models and to enhance the understanding of the spatial distribution of material stocks. In addition, a comparative review was conducted to compare the methodological approach, results, and conclusions of this study with previous material stock studies in Grenada. Results of this study indicate that in 2015, 4,375 kilo tonnes (40.96 t/capita) of materials were stocked within Grenada road networks, which were about one-third of that accumulated in buildings and accounted for a large share (24%) of total material stocks. Aggregates stocked within road networks occupied the largest proportion of stocks, contributing to 55% of total aggregate stocks. The considerable amount of road stocks supports the important role of materials stocked in non-building infrastructure in the context of small island states. A large proportion of road stocks were accumulated in the low-lying coastal areas, which are highly vulnerable to sea level rise. It is predicted that a sea level rise of 2.0 m would cause the majority of road stocks (over 18,187 tonnes) along the coastline of St. George’s Harbour to be inundated. In terms of building material stocks, this study combined GIS footprint data with LiDAR elevation data to obtain the building height for each building, finding that compared with height assumptions based on occupancy classes, LiDAR-derived height estimates were closer to ground truth heights and could better represent the heterogeneity among buildings. The study for the sample site of Grenada (St. George’s) demonstrates that using the inaccurate class-based height assumptions resulted in about 4.8% of overestimation in building stock estimates compared to using LiDAR-derived heights. The most discrepancy was found in concrete since concrete is the main material used in building construction. 3D building models in CityGML format and a 3D WebGIS application built on top of ArcGIS API for JavaScript were developed for Grenada integrating material stocks with the 3D city model. These 3D products can provide policy makers and practitioners with a new perspective and additional insights into material stocks and enable the public to access proprietary GIS data and material stock information through a user-friendly interface. This research serves as a pilot for assessing a novel methodology for estimating building and non-building material stocks in the context of small island states. The methodological approaches and results detailed in this research can further aid small island states in better assessing resource appropriation and evaluating their adaptive capacity to climate change.
3D Reconstruction of 138 KV Power-lines from Airborne LiDAR Data
(University of Waterloo, 2014-02-20) Xiang, Qing
Due to infrequent and imprecise maintenance inspection in power-line corridors, accidents can be caused by interferences, for instance, surrounding trees. Transmission power-line inspection conventionally relies on the participation of ground personnel and airborne camera to patrol power-lines, and is limited by intensive labour, and difficult working conditions and management. Airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) has proven a powerful tool to overcome these limitations to enable more efficient inspection. Active airborne LiDAR systems directly capture the 3D information of power infrastructure and surrounding objects. This study aims at building a semi-automatic 3D reconstruction workflow for power-lines extracted from airborne LiDAR data of 138 kV transmission line corridors (500 m by 340 m) in Nanaimo, BC, Canada. The proposed workflow consists of three components: detection, extraction, and fitting. The power-lines are automatically detected with regular geometric shape using a set of algorithms, including density-based filtering, Hough transform and concatenating algorithm. The complete power-lines are then extracted using a rectangular searching technique. Finally, the 3D power-lines are reconstructed through fitting by a hyperbolic cosine function and least-squares fitting. A case study is carried out to evaluate the proposed workflow for hazard tree detection in the corridor. The results obtained demonstrate that power-lines can be reconstructed in 3D, which are useful in detection of hazard trees to support power-line corridor management.
Abandoned Mid-Canada Radar Line Site 500 in the Western Hudson Bay region of sub-Arctic, Canada: A source of organochlorines for the people of Weenusk First Nation?
(University of Waterloo, 2008-05-26T14:27:25Z) Bertrand, John
Interest in the presence of environmental contaminants in the Canadian arctic and sub-arctic arises in part over concerns that Aboriginal people residing in these regions continue to rely on subsistence harvesting. Organochlorines (OCs) are a type of persistent organic pollutant (POP) that have a unique chlorine-carbon bond; this bond facilitates their unprecedented environmental longevity, lipophilicity and hydrophobic nature. OCs have been found in both the biotic and non-biotic compartments of northern ecosystems. This study examined patterns of differences with respect to body burden of organochlorines (lipid-adjusted) between the residents of the Ontario First Nations of Fort Albany (the site of MCRL Site 050), Kashechewan (no radar site), and Peawanuck (the site of MCRL 500) to assess whether geo-proximity to abandoned radar sites influenced organochlorine body burden with respect to the people of Fort Albany and Peawanuck. Correspondence analysis (CA-1) revealed people from Fort Albany had relatively higher pesticide concentrations (β-HCH and DDT, but not Mirex) and relatively lower CB (156 and 170) body burdens when compared to participants from Kashechewan and Peawanuck. CA- 2 revealed Peawanuck residents had relatively higher concentrations of CB180, DDE and hexachlorobenzene and relatively lower levels of DDT and mirex compared to participants from Kashechewan and Fort Albany. Results are suggestive but not conclusive that MCRL Site 500 may have influenced body burdens of Peawanuck residents.
ABCD and beyond: From grain merchants to agricultural value chain managers
(Canadian Food Studies, 2015-09-08) Clapp, Jennifer
The world of agricultural commodity trading firms has changed over the years, although corporate concentration has long been a defining feature of this sector. The four dominant agricultural trading firms—the ABCDs (ADM, Bunge, Cargill and Louis-Dreyfus)—have a long history dating back to the 1800s and early 1900s. First established as private, family-owned grain merchant companies with specific geographical specialties, these firms have since evolved to be quite complex companies. They buy and sell grain as well as a host of other agricultural and non-agricultural commodities, while they also undertake a range of activities from finance to production to processing and distribution. New entrants into this space have also taken on complex structures and activities in a bid to stay competitive. In many ways the world’s major grain trading firms now operate more like cross-sectoral “value chain managers” on a truly global scale compared to their grain trade origins. High degrees of concentration combined with control over a vast array of activities give these firms enormous power to shape key aspects of the global food landscape. As a result, the agricultural commodity-trading sector has important implications for farmer livelihoods, hunger and the environment. Following a brief snapshot of the main firms that dominate global grain trading today, I examine the major trends that have reshaped the sector in the past decade. I then outline the main challenges that these changes present for the food system, and suggest possible research directions moving forward.
Abiotic controls of fine sediment on the form and mobility of phosphorus in a gravel-bed river during low flow
(University of Waterloo, 2018-06-18) Watt, Caitlin
Landscape scale disturbance in forested source water regions can accelerate the transfer of fine sediment and associated phosphorus (P) to receiving streams and degrade water quality in downstream environments for human and ecosystem use. The abiotic controls of deposited riverbed and suspended fine sediment on the form and mobility of P were examined in an oligotrophic gravel-bed river undergoing cumulative downstream sediment pressures from disturbance (e.g., harvesting, wildfire and sewage effluent) in Alberta, Canada. The spatial distribution of particulate P forms (NAIP, AP, OP) and major element composition were assessed across six study sites in the Crowsnest River that receive tributary inputs from watersheds that have experienced a range of landscape disturbance types. Pore-water soluble reactive P (SRP) concentration profiles within the gravel-bed were measured with pore-water peepers. Diffusive fluxes from the sediment to the water column were related to landscape disturbances, substrate properties, dissolved oxygen concentrations, and fine sediment sorption characteristics. A series of batch experiments were conducted to determine the Equilibrium Phosphate Concentration (EPC0) and evaluate the potential of fine sediment to influence P concentrations in the overlying water column. Results of the study demonstrated varying sensitivities to landscape disturbances due to the heterogeneous nature of gravel-bed substrate and morphology. Macro- to micro-scale processes influenced the form and mobility of P, however fine sediments in the riverbed irrespective of landscape disturbance demonstrated the potential of the riverbed to release SRP to the water column. Sewage inputs had the greatest impact on SRP fluxes from the riverbed and bioavailability of P in suspended sediments. The most bioavailable form of particulate P (NAIP) was associated with metal oxide and organic carbon coatings on sediment. Lower dissolved oxygen concentrations are likely responsible for driving the release of P from redox sensitive metals. Bioavailable particulate P and the release of SRP can influence in-stream water quality and ecological communities, and over longer time scales can propagate effects downstream to reservoirs and impact drinking water supplies. This thesis provides new knowledge regarding the impacts of both landscape disturbance and site-specific abiotic processes that influence the form and mobility of P in a gravel-bed river during the biologically sensitive period of summer low flow.
Abiotic Stresses to Vegetation Re-establishment in a Cutover Bog Contaminated with Seawater
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Montemayor, Marilou B.
Part of a cutover bog in Pokesudie Island, New Brunswick, Canada was contaminated with seawater and was still largely devoid of vegetation 5 years after the event and was consequently chosen for study. The study area consisted of rectangular fields with cambered surface that sloped down (2%) to the drainage ditches on both sides. Across this slope zones were created: Up-, Mid- and Low- areas on either side of the centerline of fields. Two field experiments were conducted to determine abiotic stresses to plant re-establishment in terms of hydrology and peat characteristics along this cambered surface. The general objective was to identify microsites or zones that could be suitable to the introduction of wetland halophytes Juncus balticus Willd. and Spartina pectinata Link obtained from nearby salt marshes.

In the first experiment, cylindrical J. balticus sods were transplanted into the Up- and Low- areas, at 1, 3, 5, 10 and 20 d of incubation (in May 2005) with measurements made on the Outer and Inner annular sod sections, replicated over 4 blocks. Moisture (% dry weight basis (dwb)) reached maximum values 1 day after transplantation, 84±0. 05 for Outer and 103±0. 07 for Inner sod section. Salinity (dS m^-1) in sods due to ingress of sodium (Na⁺ ) and chloride (Cl^-) reached values of the surrounding peat 3 days after transplantation, 3. 52±1. 06 for Inner sod section and 4. 11±0. 99 for Outer sod section in Up-areas, and 1. 76±0. 24 for Inner sod section and 2. 57±0. 28 for Outer sod section in Low-areas. Maximum decrease in pH was at 5 days after transplantation, in Outer sod section in the Up-areas (from 5. 89 to 4. 88±0. 14) which was much higher than the pH range of 3-4 of the surrounding peat. This was due to the buffering capacity of calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) in sods which did not change in concentration after 20 days of incubation. Therefore, Inner sod sections were less affected by the surrounding peat compared to the Outer sod sections, suggesting that a larger sod volume may alleviate stressful conditions for a longer time at transplantation and consequently allow greater time for adaptation.

In the second experiment, J. balticus and S. pectinata were transplanted on the 3 Locations Up-, Mid- and Low- areas, replicated over 10 blocks; and peat characteristics were measured at Depths 0-5, 5-10, 10-15 and 15-20 cm 5 times during the study period May-August 2005. Survival of J. balticus was poorest (27. 5±8. 3 %) in the Low-areas compared to 68. 5±8. 9 % in the Up- and 58. 5±8. 7% in the Mid- areas. S. pectinata survival was very good at all Locations (89±5. 3, 91. 6±3. 1 and 84. 2±4. 4 for Up-, Mid- and Low- areas, respectively) having better adaptation to early season waterlogged conditions. Waterlogged conditions resulted from a perched water table during the early part of the growing season (May-June) and were alleviated only upon the complete thaw of the frozen peat layer on 8 July. Thereafter, important changes in hydrology and peat characteristics occurred: water table depths decreased from -8. 5±1. 7 and -1. 6±1. 2 cm on 26 May, to -51. 5±2. 5 and -40. 7±2. 4 cm by 9 August in Up- and Low-areas, respectively; redox potentials at 12 cm depth increased from 26 June (190. 9±8, 175±10. 8 and 109. 2±29. 4 mV) to 9 August (282. 8±8, 302. 8±14. 3 and 312. 3±29. 6 mV) in the Up-, Mid- and Low-areas, respectively which showed that anaerobic conditions were maintained throughout the study period; decreased moisture content from 1256. 8±61. 9, 1667. 4±126. 3 and 1728. 6±153 on 30 May, to 851. 7±21. 2, 874. 6±47 and 1008. 2±57. 5 % dwb on 25 July) which caused increased dry bulk density (from 0. 07±0. 002, 0. 06±0. 003 and 0. 07±0. 01 to 0. 09±0. 003, 0. 09±0. 005 and 0. 08±0. 004) in the Up-, Mid- and Low-areas, respectively; and increased electrical conductivity (salinity) especially on the 0-5cm surface (from 1. 9±0. 13, 1. 8±0. 31 and 1. 5±0. 29 to 18±1. 9, 17. 5±1. 1 and 12. 2±1 dS m^-1) which also caused decreased pH (from 3. 5±0. 04, 3. 5±0. 08 and 3. 6±0. 01 to 2. 85±0. 04, 2. 85±0. 01 and 2. 9±0. 03) in the Up-, Mid- and Low-areas, respectively. Therefore, spring flooding followed by high surface salinity in summer precludes plant establishment by seeding and explains the current lack of spontaneous revegetation. Waterlogged conditions were of greater magnitude and duration at lower elevation areas unfavourable to J. balticus survival but salinity levels were high in the Up- and Mid-areas.

In the subsequent part of the second experiment, plants of J. balticus and S. pectinata grown in the study area and those collected from marshes were divided into above- and below- ground parts and accumulation of salt ions in plant tissues were determined to understand the species' salt-tolerance mechanism, as well as the accumulation of potentially toxic levels of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Both plant species had similar accumulations (mmol kg^-1 dry wt,) of Na⁺ (474. 3±41 and 468. 3±31. 7, respectively) and Cl^- (314. 9±21. 9 and 310. 5±27. 5, respectively) in the above-ground parts but differed in how they managed Na⁺. J. balticus accumulated more Na⁺ in below-ground parts (659. 3±88. 7) and had limited transport to the above-ground parts, while S. pectinata accumulated and excreted Na⁺ in the above-ground parts and had less accumulation in the below-ground parts (397. 4±25. 1). S. pectinata maintained (313. 1±23. 8 in marsh vs. 292. 4±26. 2 in bog) and J. balticus increased (84. 2±1. 2 in marsh vs. 531. 2±38. 6 in bog) K⁺-selectivity in the shoots, a key requirement for survival in saline conditions. Compared with their respective marsh plants, S. pectinata had more salinity-tolerance than J. balticus primarily through its maintenance of Ca²⁺ (21. 5±1. 7 in marsh vs. 35. 6±3. 8 in bog) compared to a decrease in J. balticus (144. 7±12. 5 in marsh vs. 41±3. 7 in bog). Furthermore, Fe and Mn uptake in both species decreased but reached critical Fe-deficiency levels (1. 1±0. 1 mmol kg^-1 dry wt,) only in S. pectinata grown in drier areas.

It is concluded that local conditions of waterlogging (especially in lower elevation areas) and high salinity and low pH (notably in the upper elevation areas) were favourable to the survival of S. pectinata in all areas and J. balticus only in upper elevation areas. Sod transplanting may alleviate the acidity problem and depending on sod volume may delay the effects of harsh conditions of the cutover bog. However, long-term survival and growth of both species in drier areas may be constrained by deficiency in calcium in J. balticus and iron in S. pectinata.
Aboriginal Participation in Tourism Planning in British Columbia
(University of Waterloo, 2010-07-22T19:00:55Z) McKenna, Sarah
Tourism has been identified as a strategy for Indigenous communities worldwide to adopt in order to stimulate economic and social development. The goal of this research was to evaluate Aboriginal participation in tourism and the role it plays in economic and social development of Aboriginal communities. This research also addressed Aboriginal participation within the context of a mega-event, the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. The need for this research came from the common acceptance that tourism can be an effective development strategy for Aboriginal communities. However existing literature is often case-specific with limited research focusing on Canada. Additionally, limited research had addressed Aboriginal participation in Olympic planning and hosting. The goal of this research was met by examining Aboriginal tourism development in British Columbia (BC), Canada, ultimately addressing the aforementioned gaps in the literature. This research used a qualitative approach to investigate Aboriginal participation in tourism planning in British Columbia, Canada. The objectives guiding this research are as follows: (1) To identify the types of involvement; (2) To evaluate the extent of involvement; (3) To explore the relationship between Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal tourism-related businesses, associations and institutions; and (4) To identify the significance of Aboriginal tourism to the Aboriginal community, British Columbia and Canada. The findings of this research indicate that although Aboriginal tourism in BC has evolved considerably in recent years to establish a place in Non-Aboriginal tourism, it requires more support to grow the sector. As well, the Aboriginal Tourism Association of British Columbia (AtBC) appears to be guiding the future of the sector through the continued implementation of the ‘Blueprint Strategy’. This research revealed that there are still considerable barriers that inhibit Aboriginal participation in tourism. Until these barriers are addressed, an increase in Aboriginal participation in tourism, particularly in ownership and management capacities, is limited. Participants reported that Aboriginal involvement in the 2010 Winter Olympic Games was an once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to showcase Canada’s Aboriginal culture on an international stage. It also highlighted the collaborative relationships between Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal. Participants also reported that tourism could help increase cross-cultural understanding, while diversifying Aboriginal communities. Future research should be directed towards understanding the effects of increased Aboriginal participation in tourism; the role tourism can play in capacity building; and finally, the economic contributions Aboriginal tourism can make to the tourism sector. The main conclusion drawn from this study is that BC has been able to encourage and support Aboriginal participation in tourism. Although there is much opportunity to grow the sector and increase participation in ownership and management capacities, the Aboriginal tourism sector is currently being guided towards a successful future. There are many Aboriginal tourism successes happening in BC that could be used as models for other regions in Canada and around the world.
Access roads impact enzyme activities in boreal forested peatlands
(Elsevier, 2019-02-15) Saraswati, Saraswati; Parsons, Christopher T.; Strack, Maria
We investigated the impacts of resource access roads on soil enzyme activities in contrasting forested boreal peatlands (bog and fen). In August 2016, a total of 72 peat samples were collected from twelve 20 m long transects perpendicular to access roads, with a further six samples collected from undisturbed reference areas. Sampling locations represent a range in three variables associated with roads: 1) side of the road (upstream/downstream), 2) distance to a culvert (longitudinal; <2 and >20 m), and 3) distance from the road (lateral; 2, 6, and 20 m). Phenol oxidase and hydrolase (glucosidase, sulfatase, xylosidase, glucosaminidase, and phosphatase) enzyme activities were determined for each sample, in addition to water table depth, phenolic concentration, pH, and peat temperature. The average hydrolase activities in the fen were ~four times higher than in the bog. At the bog, the water table depth, phenolic concentration, pH and the activities of phenol oxidase, sulfatase, glucosidase, xylosidase and glucosaminidase were all significantly influenced by one or more road associated factors. The highest enzyme activities in the bog occurred on the downstream side of the road at plots located far from the culvert. In contrast, the flow of water in the fen was not perpendicular to the road. Consequently, no significant variations in water table depth, phenolic concentration, pH or enzyme activity were found with respect to road associated factors. Results indicate that road crossings in boreal peatlands can indirectly alter enzyme activities, likely as part of a causal chain following changes to hydrology and redox conditions. Two of six investigated enzymes had significantly higher activities in the road disturbed areas compared to undisturbed areas, suggesting ultimately that roads may enhance organic matter decomposition rates. However, adequate hydrologic connections through culverts and road construction parallel to the water flow can minimize the road-induced impacts.
The Accessibility of the Jamaican and Aruban All-Inclusive Resorts
(University of Waterloo, 2012-12-19T17:33:21Z) Hano, Katarzyna
An impairment is an attribute of an individual whereas the extent to which it is a disability is influenced strongly by the environment in which they operate which is a product of society. This research focuses on people with physical impairments in the belief that improvements in accessibility for them will decrease the disabling effects of their impairments and improve accessibility for all. A social rather than a medical approach to impairments is adopted. This approach focuses on the abilities of people with impairments and stresses that limitations are placed upon them as a result of the attitudes and actions of the broader society, of which they are a part, the majority of which is comprised of able-bodied people. Thus, this thesis examines the physical barriers experienced by physically impaired individuals and the attitudes held towards them by service providers. The concepts of universal design and barrier-free design are reviewed and used to formulate a comprehensive checklist which is used to measure and compare the state of accessibility of selected resorts in the Caribbean. This checklist is simple to administer and can be used by non-experts. It can also be used to inventory other structures in addition to resorts. The availability of such a tool will enable researchers and facility managers to record information systematically on touristic and other sites. Jamaican and Aruban all-inclusive resorts are examined to obtain a better understanding of the accessibility provisions at all-inclusive resorts for physically disabled individuals. This study is the first to examine all-inclusive resorts for their accessibility. The researcher conducted facility inventories and interviews with staff and guests at three facilities in the Caribbean in order to obtain an understanding of the physical accessibility of the resorts, the staff’s attitudes towards physically impaired guests, as well as guests’ reflections on the treatment of physically impaired individuals by staff. The results show that physical accessibility in the resorts was mixed but that staff attitudes are generally positive. The Accessibility and Attitudinal Barriers Model (AABM) is used to examine the four main areas which need to be improved in order to make traveling for physically disabled persons a pleasure and not a problem. These are accommodation, transportation, recreation activities and staff attitudes. The current research has extended the application of the model both by applying it to all-inclusive resorts and also by incorporating different kinds of information, including that collected by the check list discussed above. This has extended the application of the model and has provided greater understanding of the role of the different sectors of the model in contributing to accessible tourism. Through defining the group under discussion and explaining their difficulties, and examining the barriers that they experience and related policies, the thesis outlines the steps that already have been taken and that need to be taken to make traveling for pleasure available to all individuals. The creation of more accessible tourism establishments could help to remove doubts concerning whether or not impaired tourists travel and whether or not the number of such travelers is increasing. Often, there is a belief that few impaired individuals travel due to financial constraints and this is one of the main reasons why accessibility has not been a priority. It can be argued that, since there are few accessibility provisions for the impaired in tourism establishments, few impaired people travel. Once this barrier is eliminated, it would be more clear whether it is finances that restrict impaired tourists from traveling or whether it is the inaccessible nature of the physical space which leads them to stay home.
Accounting for Risks: Identifying Water Risks in the Food and Beverage Industry Using an Ecosystem Services Benchmarking Framework
(University of Waterloo, 2015-10-28) Saunders-Hogberg, Grace; Weber, Olaf, professor
Global population growth and economic development has placed unprecedented demand for freshwater resources. However the supply of freshwater is becoming increasingly uncertain, due to the variability of the hydrological cycle, climate change and ecosystem degradation. This thesis questions the effectiveness of current sustainability frameworks in screening for material water risks. A new framework was developed based on an ecosystem perspective of water resources. The advantage of this approach is that it focuses on the valuation of water through the context of risk and encourages broader ecosystem perspective to managing those risks throughout the value chain and within a river basin. The study applied a mixed method approach to examine the interaction between Corporate Water Risk Management with general sustainability performance (using KLD Social Ratings) and with Corporate Financial Performance. A sample of sixty-one food and beverage firms was compiled from a universal database that combined data from the Compustat database and KLD (2012) Historical Summary. Their corporate disclosures were appraised using the Corporate Water Risk Management framework. Regression analysis showed significant and positive relationships with accounting performance measures but non-significant association with market measures. Firm size was shown to have a strong influence on the accounting performance correlations. For the market measures, it was determined that there are many factors influencing market values and thus more sophisticated models are required to isolate the relationship between CSP activities and market performance.
Achieving Cultural Diversity in Wilderness Recreation: A Study of the Chinese in Vancouver
(University of Waterloo, 2003) Hung, Karin
As Canada welcomes immigrants from around the world, planners increasingly strive for policies and initiatives that meet culturally diverse needs. In Greater Vancouver, British Columbia, park planners have directed more attention to wilderness use by ethnic minority groups, particularly the Chinese population. Nowhere in Canada are people of Chinese ancestry more prominent than in Greater Vancouver, where they comprise 47% of the visible minority population and 17% of the total population. However, the rate of Chinese participation in wilderness recreation is less than that of the general population. This exploratory study examines the cultural nuances and institutional barriers that impede Chinese participation in wilderness recreation activities. It is primarily based on 51 in-depth interviews with members of the Chinese community in Greater Vancouver during 2002. Recruitment was by a hybrid convenience-purposive-snowball sampling method, which resulted in a non-random sample. Interview questions addressed views about wilderness, outdoor recreation and wilderness experience, awareness of local recreation opportunities, means to retrieve park information, and preferences for park settings and facilities. The Vancouver Index of Acculturation was used to measure participants' levels of acculturation. Interviews were tape recorded and transcribed, and information from field notes and transcripts were organized into main themes and triangulated with secondary data sources for analysis. Results indicate that Chinese who are more acculturated to Canadian culture ('High Mainstream Chinese') visit a greater number of parks and are willing to travel a further distance to access them. They also tend to visit parks more often, stay longer, and tend to be attracted to more physically demanding or 'hard adventure' activities, whereas less acculturated individuals ('Low Mainstream Chinese') are inclined to more passive outdoor activities. The study points to reasons that explain why Low Mainstream Chinese ? particularly recent immigrants ? are participating less in wilderness recreation. Factors include fear of the wilderness environment, preference for more highly developed parks, a lack of awareness of wilderness opportunities, and inadequate access to park information. Subtle aspects of the Chinese subcultural identity, such as importance of cleanliness, emphasis on academics, priorities on work, and clannishness, also play a role in Chinese under-participation. Thus if park planners want to facilitate Chinese use of designated wilderness areas, they should address issues such as safety, level of park development, availability of information, and awareness of wilderness opportunities in a culturally sensitive way. Doing so would promote more equitable access to a public resource. Increased awareness and appreciation of wilderness by ethnic minority groups may also help garner political support for future conservation initiatives and build a stronger local economy.
Act Small and Think Big: Exploring the Plurality and Complexity of Shrinking Cities
(University of Waterloo, 2016-08-31) Hartt, Maxwell
Demographically and economically, there is an ongoing global shift that has resulted in the uneven development and distribution of monetary, human and knowledge capital, and the emergence of global and shrinking cities. The ability of local planners and decision-makers in shrinking cities to effectively manage population loss and economic decline has been limited by the deficiency of available strategies to address the challenges of shrinkage and the stigma of shrinkage within the growth-oriented culture of planning. Although the causes urban shrinkage have been widely discussed, little research has explored the complexity and diversity of the various processes contributing to urban shrinkage. A two-dimensional shrinking city trajectory typology encompassing both economic and demographic change is developed as a baseline approach to discussing, depicting and classifying shrinking cities. The diversity of urban shrinkage experiences is demonstrated through the examination of the twenty largest American cities to lose population between 1980 and 1990 - fifteen of the twenty cities experienced varying degrees of population loss while simultaneously showing signs of economic growth. The diversity and complexity of urban shrinkage is further explored using a novel cross-correlation network analysis approach to disentangle the complex processes contributing to and stemming from population loss. Two Canadian shrinking municipalities, Chatham-Kent, Ontario and Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia are examined over a period of seventeen years (1997-2013). Results indicate that factors in the urban shrinkage process are strongly interrelated and exhibit circular trends and feedback mechanisms. The analysis also shows significant regional differentiation as each case study has a unique set of processes that preceded population loss. However there were commonalities between the distinct cross-correlation networks. Specifically, unemployment, employment and labor participation rates were indicative of immigration and emigration trends, changes in unemployment were inversely related to housing permit rates and intraprovincial migration was strongly linked to changes in housing starts and completions. Lastly, a shrinkage strategy transferability framework is developed to explore the diversity of local decision-makers’ perceptions of the applicability of shrinkage strategies. The framework is applied to the two Canadian shrinking municipalities to evaluate the transferability of a service rightsizing strategy. Although deemed compatible and transferable by the author and six key informants, the strategy was ultimately considered inapplicable in both municipalities due to governance barriers. Despite similar conclusions, local perceptions of shrinkage and response strategies were found to be influenced by differences in geographic location and longevity of shrinkage. This dissertation contributes to our understanding of the diversity and complexity of urban shrinkage experiences by (1) challenging the reliance on population change as the sole indicator of urban shrinkage trajectories, (2) demonstrating the complexity and distinctiveness of urban shrinkage processes and (3) advancing that the duration of shrinkage and local perceptions are tied to the stage of deindustrialization and the changing demographic makeup of the municipality.
Activating Values to Enhance e-Participation in Environmental Decision-making
(University of Waterloo, 2019-07-26) Philpot, Simone
A participatory modeling approach is designed to connect citizens and decision-makers during the selection of the most appropriate alternative solution to an environmental project based on user values systems. First, a novel approach to supporting values-based decision-making is proposed in which values activation is prompted using visual feedback and interactive modules in a software program. Next, the design parameters for a prototype software program called P2P-DSS are presented. P2P-DSS is designed in the style of an online survey, with the added capacity to activate values and provide a shared online space connecting individuals with a survey builder. In this thesis, P2P-DSS is proposed, designed, and then applied to a real-world example in environmental project evaluation. A formal decision-maker with a professional role in the evaluation of an aggregate mining application used P2P-DSS to build a model of the decision from their own perspective. Fifteen volunteers then used P2P-DSS to learn about the issue, provide their individual input in the form of ranked preferences for potential outcomes, and examine the role that values play in their own assessment of the project and the perspective of the model builder. P2P-DSS records every interaction with the software program and participants completed a post-task survey to assess aspects of the system’s performance from their perspective. By analyzing both revealed and stated preferences from the formal decision-maker and public participants, the capacity for the P2P-DSS technique to translate some of the known benefits of values-based thinking into a participatory online platform is indicated. This thesis then addresses the challenge of translating data collected from individuals into collective preference rankings that are useful for decision-makers. With reference to the aggregate mining example, participant input is aggregated using a Modified Borda Count technique. Thus, while values activation is facilitated in this study on an individual basis, the resulting input can be analyzed as group utilities, the possible implications of this information are examined in depth. Finally, a novel data set emerges from this research with implications for decision-making, communications, and conflict management. That is, a model builder calibrates a model by connecting specific values with option choices. Participants can then register a ‘values protest’ by using interactive software tools in P2P-DSS to challenge the values connections calibrated by the model builder. Values protests have implications for the preferences input by the participant and are stored by P2P-DSS as a data point. Next, analysis is conducted to isolate potential points of conflict based on emergent patterns in those protests. This new dataset reveals aspects of the decision context for which different groups do not have a shared understanding of how their decision-making is driven by their underlying values. Gaining insight into the roots of values-based conflicts can be useful for conflict prediction and management, strategic decision-making, and the fine tuning of communications by stakeholder groups. This dissertation examines the boundaries and opportunities for values-based participatory modeling. Specifically, through the design and testing of P2P-DSS this work operationalizes the theory of values activation, thereby expanding the reach of values-based decision-making in online settings. Moreover, by testing protocols to aggregate values-based preferences collected at the individual level into group utility rankings, the P2P-DSS approach is prepared to make contributions for group decision-making. Finally, a new type of data, values protests, is generated and discussed, demonstrating how it can be harnessed to understand and contribute to the management of values conflicts in issues of public interest. Finally, while presenting a novel approach to environmental research, this work also demonstrates that some of the perceived limitations of values research, that are discussed in this thesis, deserve reassessment, as the interactive capacity of software programs opens new avenues to expand the reach of values-based decision-making.
Adaptation for whom? Assessing Environmental Equity within British Columbia’s Climate Change Adaptation Policies
(University of Waterloo, 2023-09-20) Huynh, Thy
Climate change is expected to disproportionately affect social groups and geographical regions made vulnerable by persistent social inequalities understood in terms of race, Indigenous status, age, gender, and disability (Anguelovski et al., 2016; BCCDC, 2020; Leonard, 2021; Solecki & Friedman, 2021; Vadeboncoeur, 2016). Globally, research on climate justice has shed light on how adaptation policies disproportionately impact vulnerable communities. In Canada, research has begun to explore adaptation responses to flooding and rising sea levels in New Brunswick (Chouinard et al., 2020), British Columbia (Birchall & Bonnett, 2021; Oulahen et al., 2918) and Quebec (Friesinger & Bernatchez, 2010; Lapointe et al., 2020). However, an explicit analysis of Canadian adaptation policies in terms of environmental justice, including its distributional, procedural, corrective, and social justice dimensions (Kuehn, 2020) is yet to be conducted. Recent climate-driven crises in British Columbia such as wildfires, flash flooding, and collapse of salmon fisheries bring urgency to developing climate adaptation policies and for considering the inequities of climate change. Coastal communities in British Columbia face an unavoidable challenge as sea levels continue rise. With 80% of British Columbia’s population residing within 5km of the coast and near sea level (BCCDC, 2020, pg.71), efficient and holistic adaptation protocols are needed. Through a discursive policy analysis (DPA) and semi-structured interviews (n=15) with key informants, this thesis examined how government climate adaptation strategies and plans for British Columbia’s west coast communities conceptualize and address equity concerns. The findings revealed inconsistent and vague perceptions of environmental equity within adaptation strategies and plans; lack of monitoring of initiatives and efforts being made across government; the fragmenting of adaptation efforts from complementary work; and the lack of awareness of roles and responsibilities within and across jurisdictions. Beyond the urgency for vulnerable groups, addressing equity concerns in adaptation strategies and practices could offer co-benefits in improving the efficiency of broader government operations. This study provides a foundation for future research that explores how multi-level government systems can deepen the conceptualization of environmental equity and prioritize addressing equity concerns within adaptation strategies and plans. The integration of such principles is vital to ensure a just and sustainable response to climate change impacts in British Columbia and beyond.
Adaptation of Resettled Rural Population towards Urban Life in Nanjing, China: from the Perspective of Resettled Residents
(University of Waterloo, 2018-02-15) Liu, Pan
The large-scale and continuing land acquisition in China is playing a positive role in regards to the national economic development while resulting in a number of issues among resettled rural residents. For the resettled residents who are forced to move into the city, it contains not only a geographical transformation but also a profound process of adaptation towards the economic, physical and social environment. Therefore, it is essential for the government to act on the issue to maintain social justice, stability as well as sustainability. The goal of this research is to study the adaptation conditions for resettled farmers, issues faced, and possible solutions. A model derived from Du and Pan (2014)’s study, along with other literature was developed to collect data from two selected communities in Nanjing, China. Data from three perspectives, economic adaptation, environmental adaptation, and social adaptation were gathered with a structured survey, and researching findings were derived from principal component analysis and descriptive analysis. Recommendations towards the planning process on resettlement were also proposed, such as encouraging public participation and taking farmers’ opinions into considerations. Policy recommendations based on the results of influencing factors and choices of potential improvements are derived from the perspectives of the farmers, including a high demand for information on social resources and investment, green space for vegetation plantations, and sufficient and diverse compensation and social insurance. The limitations of this study include the small sample size, the resettlement time differences between the two communities, and the subjectivism towards the questions. For future studies, a larger sample with a longitudinal survey can be proposed to derive participants from more communities, and a more reasonable evaluation measurement of the adaptation level can be designed to minimize the subjectivisms of the answers.
Adaptive Capacity, Collaboration, and Adaptive Governance: The Galapagos small-scale fishing sector
(University of Waterloo, 2023-01-19) Cáceres, Renato
Over the last decades, employing adaptive capacity and vulnerability terms to indicate forms of achieving more sustainable goals, particularly in the management of natural resources, has become increasingly frequent. While this has led to a boost in policy-making discourses and guidelines for governing complex social-ecological systems, it is essential to recognize that the broad and indistinct use of such concepts has given rise to multiple interpretations, forms of application, and, therefore, diverse policy-making solutions. Considering that the realities of complex social-ecological systems are place-specific, this dissertation provides some clarifications on vulnerability and adaptive capacity. It suggests strategies and actions that might help practitioners and policymakers to interpret and operationalize the terms, enabling them to move from conceptualizations to practice in distinct contexts, as well as build adaptive capacity and enhance the resilience of complex social–ecological systems. This dissertation highlights that bolstering the capacity of a system of interest to adapt depends partly on its ability to explore location-specific conditions that enable it to anticipate and respond proactively to diverse shocks, recover and take advantage of new opportunities (Folke et al. 2002b; Engle 2011; Whitney et al. 2017; Cinner et al. 2018). This capacity depends primarily on factors such as the system’s technological, behavioural, financial, institutional, and informational resources (Adger 2003b; Burton 2003; Smit and Wandel 2006). This dissertation recognizes that an analysis of the forms of governance and collaboration networks, as well as their linkages, is critical in determining adaptive capacity and resilience when addressing the vulnerabilities of a social–ecological system in the short and long term (Wandel and Marchildon 2010; Pittman et al. 2015). Therefore, it explores ways of building adaptive capacity and enhancing common-pool resource governance’s resilience in light of diverse, adverse, internal and external drivers of change, such as climate change, novel pandemics, and institutional fragmentations, using qualitative and social network approaches. Today, many multidimensional issues cross human-made administrative and political borders, making it increasingly difficult to govern common-pool resources such as small-scale fisheries. Addressing countless simultaneous and sudden social-ecological interactions requires the collaboration, support and involvement of actors and stakeholders from various areas, geographical scales, and administrative levels. The adverse effects of COVID-19 and climate change are likely the most recent and perhaps the most explicit and vivid examples worldwide of how sudden external drivers of change can rapidly affect livelihoods and alter the socio-economic dynamics in complex social–ecological systems from one day to another, pushing them into more profound social and economic crisis. Thus, a society that might face the adverse effects of new drivers of change derived from novel pandemics, climate change, or globalization requires approaches and strategies that will enable decision-makers and policymakers to act during unexpected and rapid changes. In this regard, this dissertation examines polycentric approaches to governance, including linkages (partnerships) spanning multiple scales and levels, from global to local, that rely on formal and informal networks to create the correct links at the correct time to face climate-related factors of change and non-climate-related drivers of change that generate vulnerability in complex social–ecological systems. Since governance often represents the different structures by which societies share power and are platforms to define collective and individual actions (Kooiman 2003a; Lautze et al. 2011), this dissertation explores the Galapagos small-scale fishing governance system, a crucial socio-economic sector for diverse coastal communities and food security in the Galapagos Islands. This archipelago is widely recognized in conservation for incorporating the islands that inspired Darwin’s theory of evolution but whose high levels of endemism have indirectly hampered research efforts to focus mainly on the biophysical features of the islands and disregarded social sciences as forms of building adaptive capacity. My doctoral research examines forms of addressing context-specific vulnerabilities and building adaptive capacity through a social science perspective to fill this gap. In doing so, this dissertation aims to 1) assess how vulnerability assessments and decision-making planning tools can be applied to increase adaptive capacity at the local scale in the face of multiple drivers of change; 2) explore the role of collaboration and social networks in building adaptive capacity in the Galapagos small-scale fishing sector; 3) improve the collaboration network of the Galapagos small-scale governance system in light of multiple drivers of change.
An Adaptive Ecosystem Approach to Rehabillitation and Management of the Cooum River Environmental System in Chennai, India
(University of Waterloo, 2000) Bunch, Martin J.
This research investigates the application of an adaptive ecosystem approach to the problem of the Cooum River and environs in Chennai (formerly Madras), India. The Cooum River is an extremely polluted urban stream that flows into the Bay of Bengal through the heart of Chennai, India's fourth largest metropolis. During the dry (non-monsoon) season, the upper reaches of the river are dry and flow in the river may be attributed primarily to the production of sewage by the city's population. The river is essentially a foul-smelling open sewer. Complexity of the problem is due as much to human factors (population growth, poverty, uncontrolled urban development, jurisdictional conflicts, modes of behaviour of the citizenry, and institutional culture) as to physical characteristics of the system (flat topography, tidal action, blockage of the river mouth by sand bar formation, and monsoon flooding). Uncertainty in the situation is both structural (regarding main processes and activities in the system and the nature of relationships among the various actors and elements), and parametric (having to do with scarcity, poor quality and restricted access to data). This work has drawn upon methods and techniques of Adaptive Environmental Management and Soft Systems Methodology to operate the ecosystem approach and address the problem. Specifically, this has involved a series of workshops which have brought together planners, researchers, NGOs, and other stakeholders in a participatory process oriented toward problem definition, system identification and conceptualization, determination of objectives for management, and the generation and exploration of management interventions. In addition, a central component of the program has been the development of a loosely-coupled GIS, environmental simulation model, and a decision support module. This is based upon a framework provided by participants in the first workshop in the series, and operationalizes a common understanding of the system. In addition to generating new insight into the nature of the problem situation, the research has provided a potentially useful tool to planners, managers and researchers in Chennai in the form of a GIS database and decision support system (DSS). Aside from the tool itself, it was found that the process of developing a conceptual model, and attempting to represent this in the DSS has made a significant contribution to understanding of the Cooum system. In particular, this process forced assumptions to be stated explicitly and publically, highlighted areas of uncertainty and led to new understanding in participants' conception of the problem situation. The program of research also provided a much needed forum for open debate and exchange of information which was removed from the restrictive institutional culture of government departments.
Adaptive Responses of Small-Scale Fisheries to the Vulnerabilities Resulting from Crude Oil Extraction in Western Ghana
(University of Waterloo, 2021-09-16) Sekyi, Joyce
Offshore crude oil exploration activities affect marine-based occupations, including fishing. These activities lead to the loss of biodiversity, natural resources, and income. In many areas, fishing entrepreneurs/ professionals along the fish value chain have raised concerns ranging from declining fish catch to loss of properties and restricted access to fishing grounds. These issues require attention to promote resilience and support a transition of small-scale fisheries from vulnerability to viability. Previous research has focused on vulnerabilities fishers face as a result of crude oil extraction. However, limited knowledge exists on the adaptive responses used by small-scale fisheries (SSF) in response to vulnerabilities of crude oil extraction. Hence, in this research, the study aimed to 1) explore the extent of oil and gas activities in the Western Region of Ghana and the nature of Akwidaa SSF’s in the Western region of Ghana. Specific attention is on the impact of oil and gas activities on fisher livelihoods; 2) investigate the vulnerabilities SSF face due to crude oil production in Ghana; 3) provide an in-depth understanding of the adaptive responses available to SSF transitioning from vulnerability to viability. The study employed a Description and responses and Appraisal for Typology (IADAp-T) approach to extensively review and assess existing literature on vulnerabilities affecting SSF, their institutions, and various adaptation strategies that have been devised in the past in the face of growing oil and gas activities. The results from the assessment of past studies revealed that SSF is impacted by conflicts, low fish catch and increased social vices. Other impacts include environmental pollution and increased cost of accommodation and living expenses. These impacts have caused loss of income and the inability of SSF to provide for their families. In addition, the decreasing standard of living has led to a loss of livelihood resilience, declining well-being, and lack of capital. In response to these vulnerabilities, fishing groups resort to short- and long-term coping strategies. Livelihood intensification and diversification to enhance fishing efforts have been used in the past by fishers. Other adaptive responses include increased access to capital (social, natural, physical, financial, and cultural). Sustainable fisheries policy and participation, community mobilization, migration and education have proven successful in responding to stressors and enhancing the resilience of small-scale fisheries. The study recommends an improved avenue for representation of SSF in policymaking and development, enhanced access to capitals, capacity building and training and strict environmental regulations to improve well-being and resilience. Further studies on these strategies can strengthen communities and provide possible pathways for transitioning to viability.

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