Health (Faculty of)

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The Faculty was known as the Faculty of Applied Health Sciences prior to its name change in January 2021.

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Exploring organizational commitment following radical change A case study within the Parks Canada Agency
(University of Waterloo, 2002) Culverson, Dawn
Understanding how committed employees are within an organization is a valuable tool for managing and fostering a successful work environment. A continued appreciation of employee commitment is especially beneficial following organizational change as it has been shown that change inevitably impacts commitment levels to some degree. This study investigated organizational commitment within a subpopulation of the newly restructured Parks Canada Agency using an established survey instrument. The findings revealed that an employee's tenure and work location currently influences commitment levels among the sample that was surveyed. This study also found that commitment to the Parks Canada mandate significantly differs from the expressed commitment to the current state of the organization. An effort to improve the moderate levels of organizational commitment would be a valuable strategy for enhancing the employer-employee relationship and contributing to the positive effects of the organizational change.
Stabilization Strategies of the Lumbar Spine in Vivo
(University of Waterloo, 2002) Grenier, Sylvain
In developing a method of quantifying stability in the lumbar spine Cholewicki and McGill (1996) have also broached the notion of sufficient stability, where too much stiffness (and stability) would hinder motion. Thus people highly skilled at maintaining stability may use different and optimal strategies, where sufficient stability is maintained. The purpose of this work was to explore the contributors to sufficient stability, how they coordinate and relate to injury mechanisms. This work represents a cascade of investigations where. 1) To explore the balance of various sources of stiffness and their effect on the critical load and post-buckling behaviour, simulations were undertaken where the buckled configuration of the spine was predicted and its stability in this new configuration was assessed. 2) The various sources of stiffness contributing to stability in the lumbar spine have been in some cases found to be deficient. The question of how these deficiencies place individuals at risk of instability, if at all, remains unresolved. A challenged breathing task was used to determine if there was a difference in stabilizing potential between healthy individuals and low back pain sufferers. Given that differences in stabilizing potential are apparent, several tasks which included a predetermined motor strategy, such as 3)pressurizing the abdomen and 4) abdominal hollowing vs. muscle bracing, were evaluated to determine if individuals can utilize motor strategies to augment stability. The stabilizing potential of abdominal pressure (IAP) and its interaction with muscle activation was evaluated. Some individuals are more skilled at stabilizing their lumbar spine than others. Some consciously controlled motor strategies are better stabilizers than others. These strategies highlight the relative contributions of various components (posture, passive tissue, muscle activation, and load) in that no single muscle dominates stability and IAP appears to augment stability beyond muscle activation alone. The margin of safety is considerable and depends on the task at hand, but it is possible to speculate on which tissues are at greatest risk of injury.
Voluntary Simplicity as a Value Orientation in the Lifestyle, Leisure, Well-being Relationship
(University of Waterloo, 2002) Range, Bernhard H.
Leisure typically has been regarded as a positive component in people's lives, and evidence points to its central rather than peripheral role in lifestyle. Further, studies of leisure suggest it is conducive to psychological well-being, to physical health, and to the stability of social groups. The extent to which people are able to reach this potential very much depends on leisure's role in lifestyle, the experience of leisure, and whether conditions in a consumption-oriented society facilitate such positive outcomes. For many, leisure in consumption-oriented lifestyles holds symbolic meaning. Important aspects of personal identity and meaning are found in leisure-related possessions and through leisure activities pursued. For others, leisure represents an internal, inner-directed process through which activities or behaviours are intrinsically motivated, freely chosen, and ultimately satisfying. In this study, lifestyle was conceptualized and operationalized using a 'voluntary simplicity' value orientation, focussing on four main value dimensions: (1) material simplicity, (2) self-determination, (3) ecological awareness, and (4) personal growth. The purpose of the study was to examine the role that lifestyle plays in the relationship between leisure and psychological well-being. A self-administered questionnaire was completed by adults enrolled in general interest and continuing education leisure courses. Five basic concepts were assessed in the questionnaire: (1) leisure participation, (2) importance of leisure activity to lifestyle, (3) leisure experience, (4) psychological well-being, and (5) lifestyle. The highest frequencies of leisure participation per month included reading books, magazines and newspapers, listening to music, and watching television and videos. Leisure experience was characterized by higher challenge and awareness, and lower boredom and anxiety. There was general support for voluntary simplicity values in lifestyle with personal growth, self-determination, and ecological awareness dimensions being higher and material simplicity values being the lowest. Lifestyles that more strongly embraced voluntary simplicity were associated with higher levels of challenge and awareness, and lower levels of anxiety and boredom in the experience of leisure. The self-determination, ecological awareness, and personal growth dimensions of a voluntary simplicity lifestyle contributed to heightened positive affect within psychological well-being, while lower levels of material simplicity increased negative affect (decreased psychological well-being). When all factors are taken together, a significant proportion of variance in psychological well-being is explained by the experience of leisure, especially high challenge, and not by leisure participation, and by a voluntary simplicity lifestyle characterized by self-determination, ecological awareness and personal growth values in the positive affect dimension, and material simplicity values in the negative affect dimension of psychological well-being. These results suggest that regardless of the type and intensity of leisure involvement, if through heightened awareness, higher challenge and lower anxiety are sought in leisure, especially as expressed within a voluntary simplicity lifestyle, then higher levels of psychological well-being may be achieved. Indeed, by reducing lifestyle complexity and lessening the focus on consumerism, the inherent value of leisure to well-being might well emerge to a greater degree.
Unser Satt Leit: Our Sort of People - Health Understandings in the Old Order Mennonite and Amish Community
(University of Waterloo, 2003) Wenger, Lisa M.
Our cultural orientation informs our fundamental understandings of health. It has the potential to guide how we define health, how we understand the determinants of well-being, and how we respond to illness. For researchers, the recognition of this reality is central to not only how we interpret our findings, but also to the ways in which we develop the approach, questions, and methods central to our research. The Old Order Mennonites and Amish are a culturally, ethnically, and religiously distinct population existing within the North American society. This thesis sought to improve upon previous health-related research on this population by asking several basic questions: Among Old Order Mennonites and Amish, how is health perceived and 'good health' understood? What are the perceptions of the determinants of health? How is illness perceived? What is the response to illness? And how does culture relate to health in the Old Order community? A hermeneutical approach was adopted to address these questions and a qualitative textual analysis of an Old Order magazine, Family Life, completed. To allow the voices of community members to guide understandings, a broad approach to health was adopted throughout the examination of two years of the publication (2001, 2000). Findings indicate that in the Family Life writings health is primarily defined by an individual's ability to fulfill his or her role. A focus on nutrition and reproduction dominated discussions of the determinants of physical health and an individual's relationship with God was viewed by many as the central source of mental health or illness. Emotionally, analysis suggests that individuals may have a range of responses to illness including a desire to accept the experience of illness as a part of God's plan, a struggle to find this acceptance, and the incorporation of community and Divine support throughout this pursuit. Behaviourally, health information appears to be transferred through a variety of mediums including health practitioners, community members, and advertisements. Individuals expressed concern with appearing too quick to seek professional medical care and may incorporate a range of considerations into the decision of whether to begin, continue, or end medical treatments. The textual analysis indicated that a mixture of methods may be adopted for achieving health. Individuals appear to care for themselves through home remedies or non-medical measures (including alternative treatments) for as long as possible. In situations of acute physical illness, however, there appears to be comfort with seeking formal medical care. Amidst limited discussion of a physiological root of mental illness, analysis suggested that the main method of treating mental illness is refocusing concentration toward God rather than the self. In consideration of the cultural understandings guiding these submissions related to health and illness, there were two primary themes. The first is that God determines life and is an active and present force in the lives of individuals. The second theme is that the community responds to this belief in God's defining role in particular ways. More specifically, the Old Order orientation to life which includes a deferment of individual will to that of the authority of God and Community (Gelassenheit) and appreciation for a set of rules guiding behaviour (Ordnung), directs discussions and understandings of health in culturally-unique ways. Overall, this study highlighted the distinct ways in which cultural perspective guides understandings of health and illness within the Old Order community.
The Canadian Culinary Tourists: How Well Do We Know Them?
(University of Waterloo, 2003) Ignatov, Elena
Culinary tourism is emerging as an important component of the rapidly growing cultural tourism market. It introduces tourists to new flavours and different traditions associated with the preparation, serving, and consuming of foods and beverages. Although food has been strongly linked to tourism in some European and Asian destinations for years, culinary tourism is a relatively new phenomenon in North America. Current research tends to focus on only one aspect of culinary tourism, wine, with most research done in Australia and New Zealand. Although growing, there is still little research in Canada, and it has also concentrated on the wine component of culinary tourism. However, those who engage in wine tourism may not necessarily be the same people who would engage in other culinary practices such as visiting farmer?s fairs and markets, browsing food stores featuring local and gourmet ingredients, or who seek out authentic cuisine in restaurants. This study examines the characteristics and composition of the Canadian culinary tourism market and also explores the relationship between food and wine tourism. The study is based on the Travel Activities and Motivations Survey (TAMS) dataset. The survey was carried out between September 1999 and April 2000 and involved a telephone interview followed by a mail questionnaire. The total number of completed mail questionnaires received was 5,740, generating a response rate of 23. 2%. The objectives of the study were to understand the similarities and differences between 1) Canadian culinary travellers and the rest of the Canadian traveling population; 2) culinary tourists engaging in food-related activities, those who participate in wine, and those who participate in both; and 3) to identify segments of culinary tourists with respect to cross-participation in each of the culinary related activities. The segments were compared in terms of demographics, psychographics, vacation and getaway trip characteristics, and media consumption habits. To accomplish the first two objectives, culinary-related activities were arranged in three groups:
Group One: farmer?s fairs/markets; shop/browse gourmet foods in retail stores or farms; pick-your-own farms/harvesting;
Group Two: restaurant dining featuring regional or local cooking; restaurant dining at internationally acclaimed restaurants; staying at a cooking school; staying at a gourmet restaurant with accommodation on premises;
Group Three: touring a region?s wineries where one stays one or more nights; going to wineries for day visits and tasting; staying at a wine tasting school. ?Culinary travellers? were conceptually defined as those who had taken trips in Canada in the past two years preceding the survey, and had participated in at least one activity from both group one and two or had participated in at least one activity from group three. ?Food travellers? were defined as those who had traveled in Canada in the past two years preceding the survey and had participated in at least one activity from Group One and Two and had not engaged in any activities in Group Three; ?wine travellers? were those who had participated in at least one activity in Group Three and did not qualify as ?food travellers?; and ?food and wine travellers? were those who met the criteria of both ?food? and ?wine? travellers. A factor analysis was performed in order to establish which cuisine-related variables were closely related and what underlying dimensions might exist in culinary tourism activities. The next step was to perform a k-means cluster analysis of the factors in order to identify distinct groups of cuisine travellers. The resulting four clusters were labeled: ?rural?, ?sophisticated?, ?indifferent?, and ?true cuisine?. The results show that the Canadian culinary tourism market represents nearly 45% of Canadian travellers and exhibits characteristics and behaviours that clearly distinguish them from other tourists. Canadian culinary tourists tend to be females in their mid-forties, highly educated with above average incomes; they are highly diverse in their travel motivations, interests, and activities pursuits (both at home and while traveling); travel mainly in the summer months but also take trips in the other seasons; they are accompanied by a spouse/partner (no children) while traveling and stay at hotels/resorts/country inns or at the homes of friends and relatives. They exhibit high readership preferences for newspapers (daily and weekend) and travel publications, and are more likely to use the Internet as an information source. In all instances, the culinary segment represented the large majority compared to the non-culinary travellers. Two segments emerged as relatively consistent across the analyses involving the ?food?, ?wine?, ?food and wine?, and the ?rural?, ?sophisticated?, ?indifferent?, and ?true cuisine? segments. These segments were the ?food/rural? and the ?food and wine/true cuisine? groups. The ?food/rural? group are highly interested in the local, traditional country-style forms of cuisine associated with rural regions; they seem to enjoy being in rural areas and close to the sources of their daily food. They tend to be females, in their mid-forties, with secondary education and middle incomes; travel to strengthen family ties, and seek simpler holiday experiences associated with rural regions. In contrast, the ?food and wine/true cuisine? group is very diverse in their travel motivations and activities pursuits; they are highly involved in all aspects of culinary tourism and exhibit high cultural orientation and exquisite tastes; these are females, in their mid-forties, university graduates with incomes well above average. Another interesting finding is that wine tourists appear mostly interested in the wine itself; they are not really as active and diverse in their activities and interests as the food and food and wine enthusiasts. This may indicate that food and not wine is what motivates culinary tourists; rather, wine is only a supplement. The findings of the study led to a consideration of possible marketing implications and areas for future research have been provided.
An Exploration of the Experiences of Community Integration for Older Adults with Mental Health Issues
(University of Waterloo, 2004) Hebblethwaite, Shannon
Community integration is vital for older adults with mental health issues, both as a process and as an outcome. The process of deinstitutionalization has made community integration a primary concern for these individuals. Many researchers recognize the significant lack of community resources that have been established in order to accommodate individuals with mental health issues in the community (Davidson, Hoge, Godleski, Rakfeldt, & Griffith, 1996; Pedlar, 1992). Researchers and practitioners alike, however, lack a thorough understanding of the factors that contribute to the successful and lasting community reintegration of older adults with mental health issues. The purpose of this study was to provide an in-depth analysis of the experience of community integration for older adults with mental health issues. The study was guided by the conceptual framework of phenomenology, focusing on the lived experiences of these individuals (Patton, 2002). Utilizing qualitative methods, data collection consisted of semi-structured interviews, oral member checks and the maintenance of a reflexive journal. Participants in the study were five older adults who had been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder, had received treatment on an inpatient geriatric psychiatry unit, and had returned to their homes in the community upon discharge from the hospital. The findings suggest that being healthy and concomitantly maintaining independence played a key role in the process of community integration for these older adults. Independence, from the perspective of these individuals was quite different from the definitions of independence commonly used in North American society. The older adults in this study did not adhere to the principles of autonomy and individualism in relation to independence. Instead, they accepted a certain degree of dependence in order to prevent or avoid future disability, relapse, and readmission to hospital. A number of factors contributed to their independence, both positively and negatively, including: being healthy; social support; a smooth transition from hospital to community; maintaining feelings of self-worth; solitude; the power of knowledge; feelings of burden; and managing stress. These findings point to an emerging model of community integration that incorporates the concepts of empowerment, recovery, inclusion, and independence. The experience of independence, as described by these individuals, evoked feelings of empowerment and was strongly associated with the concept of recovery. For these older adults, being healthy, and thus, independent, meant being integrated. The findings, as well as the process of conducting this research, have lead to a number of recommendations for future research and suggestions for practitioners and policy makers involved with these older adults.
The Dilemma of Proxy-Agency in Exercise: a Social-Cognitive Examination of the Balance between Reliance and Self-Regulatory Ability
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Shields, Christopher Andrew
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT: Bandura, 1997) has been used successfully in understanding exercise adherence. To date, the majority of the exercise research has focused on situations of personal agency (i. e. , self as agent: e. g. , McAuley & Blissmer, 2000). However, there are a number of exercise situations in which people look to others to help them manage their exercise participation by enlisting a proxy-agent (Bandura, 1997). While using assistance from a proxy can promote the development of self-regulatory skills, Bandura (1997) cautions that reliance on a proxy actually reduces mastery experiences which can result in an inability to self-regulate one?s behaviour. Although research examined proxy-agency in exercise (e. g. , Bray et al. , 2001), the issue of reliance on the proxy at the expense of the participant?s ability to adjust to exercise without that agent has not been investigated. This potential dilemma of proxy-agency in exercise was at the core of this dissertation and was investigated in a series of three studies. Study 1 investigated whether those who differed in preferred level of proxy-contact also differed in their social-cognitions both within and outside a proxy-led exercise context. In addition, the relationships between proxy-efficacy, reliance and self-efficacy were examined. Results indicated that participants who preferred regular contact with an exercise proxy had lower self-regulatory efficacy, lower task efficacy, and weaker intentions in a proxy-led exercise context. Further, high-contact participants were shown to be less efficacious in dealing with the behavioural challenge of sudden class elimination. It was also demonstrated that higher reliance on the instructor was associated with lower self-efficacy and higher proxy-efficacy. Study 2 served to extend the findings of Study 1 through the examination of behavioural differences characteristic of differential levels of preferred proxy contact and the reasons for use of proxy-agency. It was found that exercise class participants preferring high contact with a proxy found exercising independently more difficult than did their low contact counterparts. It was also found that when faced with class elimination, those preferring high contact chose a self-managed activity alternative less frequently than did those preferring low contact. High contact participants also reported feeling less confident, less satisfied and perceived their alternative activity as more difficult than did those preferring low contact. In examining the reasons for preferring high proxy-contact, results indicated that a preference for high contact was associated with having had less experience exercising independently and allotting more responsibility for in-class participation to the class instructor as compared to preferring low proxy-contact. Study 3 used Lent and Lopez?s (2002) tripartite model of efficacy beliefs to examine the associations between relational efficacies (i. e. , other-efficacy and relation inferred self-efficacy (RISE) beliefs, proxy-efficacy) and various social cognitions relevant to proxy-agency. Results revealed that relational efficacies were distinct yet related constructs which additively predicted self-regulatory efficacy, satisfaction, intended intensity and reliance. Relational efficacies were also shown to make unique contributions to the predictions of the relevant social-cognitions. It was also demonstrated that RISE beliefs were associated with the attributions participants made. Specifically, higher RISE beliefs was associated with making more internal, personally controllable and stable attributions. These results represent the initial examination of relational efficacy beliefs in the exercise literature and provide additional evidence of the proxy-agency dilemma in exercise. Taken together, the present series of studies both support theorizing by Bandura on the dilemma of proxy-agency and represent an extension of the existing literature of proxy-agency in exercise. Results suggest that seemingly healthy, regularly exercising adults who choose to employ proxy-agency may be at risk for nonadherence in situations of behavioural challenge. The current findings have important implications for exercise leaders and interventionists as they must be aware of the balance between helping and hindering.
?Never short of a smile?: A Content Analysis of Travel Guidebooks
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Quinlan, Sarah
Guidebooks are argued to be significant elements of the tourism infrastructure (Koshar, 1998), influencing the perception of destinations and the travel practices of millions of tourists (Gilbert, 1999). Guidebooks have been depicted as mediators, interpreters, and communicators of place and people, yet the examination of these texts as part of tourism has received little attention in the academic literature. There are few studies focusing on what information guidebooks are presenting to tourists (Bhattacharyya, 1997; Lew, 1991; McGregor, 2000).

In pursuit of cultural, environmental, and leisure experiences, tourists are going all over the world and there is increasing concern over the economic, socio-cultural, and environmental impacts of this activity. Information on these impacts can be found in academic literature and government reports, but rarely is it presented to tourists.

The purpose of this study is to analyse and describe how travel guidebooks communicate information on socio-cultural, environmental, and other destination specific issues. The republic of Peru was the case study area for this research.

Destination data was collected through interviews with tourism representatives in Perú, Destination Management Organisation (DMO) website analysis, and participant observation. This data was analysed to provide a coding scheme for the current issues and impacts in Peru relating to tourism. This coding scheme was used to analyse the content of the most commonly used commercial guidebooks for Peru (Lonely Planet, South American Handbook, Rough Guide) to understand if and how guidebooks are addressing current issues in Peru tourism.

Qualitative content analysis of destination data resulted in 29 emergent categories which were evaluated based on theme distributions (socio-cultural, environmental, and other) and source information. Categories were grouped based on importance values to allow for further examination of the main issues and impacts involved in Peru tourism.

Qualitative analysis of guidebook content resulted in 4 additional categories for a total of 33 items. This was followed by quantitative analysis of guidebook content to better understand theme distributions, statement types, marketing communication types, and relationships with original category intentions. Guidebook content was organised into groups based on importance values and compared with the importance groups found in the destination data to determine differences in category relevance.

The implications of this research in presenting information to tourists are discussed in terms of their relevance to socio-cultural and environmental interpretation, marketing and communication theory, and responsible tourism. Similarities and differences found in comparing destination and guidebook data are examined. Findings and discussions based on this research indicate that the role of the guidebook is multi-dimensional. These texts, juxtaposed between host and guest, mediate and interpret ecological, cultural, and social information. Findings of this research suggest that though guidebooks are involved in persuasive messaging which raises issues of power and representation, guidebooks are the only popular tourist information source in Peru attempting to influence tourists to reduce cultural and environmental impacts. This discussion is followed by suggestions for future research in this area.
An Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory Examination of the Role of Identity in Health Behaviour and Behavioural Regulation
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Strachan, Shaelyn
The self has been identified as the ?psychological apparatus that allows individuals to think consciously about themselves? (Leary & Price Tangney, 2003, p. 8). Further, the self has been identified as a worthwhile construct of investigation in relation to health behaviour (Contrada & Ashmore, 1999). Two self-related variables that have been useful in the study of health behaviour are identity (e. g. Anderson, Cychosz, & Franke, 1998; Petosa, Suminski & Hortz, 2003; Storer, Cychosz, & Anderson, 1997) and self-efficacy (Maddux, Brawley & Boykin, 1995). Identity Theory posits that individuals regulate their behaviour in a manner that is consistent with their goal identity (Gecas & Burke, 2003). Social Cognitive Theory provides a means of measuring social cognitions that may be important in behavioural regulation relative to identity. Further, self-efficacy beliefs may influence individuals? persistence at aligning their identity and behaviour. Research to date has investigated the link between identity and exercise (e. g. Anderson, Cychosz & Franke, 1998; Petosa, et al. , 2003). Further, researchers are beginning to investigate the link between identity and other health behaviours (e. g. Armitage & Conner, 1999; Kendzierski and Costello, 2004; Storer, Cychosz, & Andersen, 1997). However, research has not utilized the predictive frameworks offered by Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory to investigate the relationships between identity, behaviour and behavioural regulation.

Study One investigated the role of identity and self-efficacy beliefs in the maintenance of vigorous physical activity. Results were consistent with both Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory. Individuals who strongly identified with the runner identity expressed stronger task and self-regulatory efficacy beliefs. They also exercised more frequently and for longer durations than did those who only moderately identified with running.

Study Two further explored the relationship between exercise identity, exercise behaviour and the self-regulatory processes involved in behavioural regulation. Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory were used as guiding frameworks for this investigation. High and moderate exercise identity groups were compared in term of their affective and cognitive reactions to a hypothetical behavioural challenge to exercise identity. Consistent with Identity Theory, results indicated that participants appeared to be regulating their behaviour in a manner that was consistent with their exercise identity. Specifically, in response to the behavioural challenge to identity, high exercise identity participants, in contrast to their moderate counterparts, showed (a) less positive and (b) greater negative affect about the challenge, (c) higher self-regulatory efficacy for future exercise under the same challenging conditions, (d) stronger intentions for this future exercise, as well as for (e) using self-regulatory strategies to manage the challenging conditions and (f) intending to exercise more frequently under those conditions.

Study Three investigated whether identity with healthy eating could also be useful in understanding behaviour and behavioural regulation. Similar to Study Two, extreme healthy-eater identity groups? reactions to a hypothetical behavioural challenge to identity were compared. Results were similar to Study Two. Participants responded in a manner that suggested that they would regulate their future behaviour relative to their healthy-eater identity. In response to the behavioural challenge to identity, individuals who highly identified as healthy-eaters expressed less (a) positive affect, greater (b) negative affect, (c) self-regulatory efficacy for managing their healthy eating in the future challenging weeks, (d) intentions to eat a healthy diet, (e) generated more self-regulatory strategies and had (f) stronger intentions to use those strategies in future weeks under the same challenging conditions than did individuals who moderately identified themselves as healthy-eaters. Further, prospective relationships between healthy-eater identity and social cognitive variables, and healthy eating outcomes were examined. As was found in Study One in the context of exercise, healthy-eater identity and social cognitions predicted healthy eating outcomes.

Taken together, the three studies suggest that identity may be important in understanding health behaviours and the regulation of these behaviours. Also, the present findings support the compatible use of Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory in the investigation of identity and health behaviour.
Determinants And Strategies For The Alternate Foot Placement
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Moraes, Renato
Undesirable landing area (e. g. , a hole, a fragment of glass, a water puddle, etc) creates the necessity for an alternate foot placement planning and execution. Previous study has proposed that three determinants are used by the central nervous system (CNS) for planning an alternate foot placement: minimum foot displacement, stability and maintenance of forward progression. However, validation of these determinants is lacking. Therefore, the general purpose of the series of studies presented here is to validate and test the generality of the decision algorithm of alternate foot placement selection developed previously. The first study was designed to validate the use of a virtual planar obstacle paradigm and the economy assumption behind minimum foot displacement determinant. Participants performed two blocks of trials. In one block, they were instructed to avoid stepping in a virtual planar obstacle projected in the screen of a LCD monitor embedded in the ground. In another block, they were instructed to avoid stepping in a real hole present in walkway. Behavioral response was unaffected by the presence of a real hole. In addition, it was suggested that minimum foot displacement results in minimum changes in EMG activity which validates the economy determinant. The second study was proposed to validate the stability determinant. Participants performed an avoidance task under two conditions: free and forced. In the free condition participants freely chose where to land in order to avoid stepping in a virtual obstacle. In the forced condition, a green arrow was projected over the obstacle indicating the direction of the alternate foot placement. The data from the free condition was used to determine the preferred alternate foot placement whereas the data from the forced condition was used to assess whole body stability. It was found that long and lateral foot placements are preferred because they result in a more stable behavior. The third study was designed to validate the alternate foot placement model in a more complex terrain. Participants were required to avoid stepping in two virtual planar obstacles placed in sequence. It was found that participants used the strategy of planning the avoidance movement globally and additional determinants were used. One of the additional determinants was implementation feasibility. In the third study, gaze behavior was also monitored and two behaviors emerged from this data. One sub-group of participants fixated on the area stepped during adaptive step, whereas another sub-group anchor their gaze in a spot ahead of the area-to-be avoided and used peripheral vision for controlling foot landing. In summary, this thesis validates the three determinants for the alternate foot placement planning model and extends the previous model to more complex terrains.
Self-efficacy theory and the self-regulation of exercise behaviour
(University of Waterloo, 2005) Angove Woodgate, Jennifer
Why are people unable to adhere to an exercise program? Adhering to an exercise program is complex, and exercisers struggle with a variety of challenges that require self-regulation (e. g. , making time, learning skills, changing behaviour). Bandura (1995b) has deemed the assessment of self-regulatory efficacy to manage the regular performance of health behaviours (e. g. , exercise) essential. Despite this recommendation, few components of self-regulation have been examined in the exercise and self-efficacy research to date (McAuley & Mihalko, 1998). Furthermore, major reviews of the exercise-related self-efficacy literature have demonstrated that task self-efficacy has been the predominant operationalization of the self-efficacy construct, and barriers self-efficacy has been the most prevalent operationalization of self-regulatory efficacy (Culos-Reed, Gyurcsik, & Brawley, 2001; McAuley & Mihalko, 1998). However, self-regulation of behaviour involves more than managing barriers and overcoming their limitations (Barone, Maddux, & Snyder, 1997; Brawley, 2005; DuCharme & Brawley, 1995). In order to examine other aspects of self-regulatory efficacy, self-efficacy theory was used as the underpinning for the three studies in this dissertation (Bandura, 1986, 1997).

In Study One an expanded operationalization of exercise-related self-regulatory efficacy was investigated. The construction of various self-regulatory efficacy indices was informed by self-regulation frameworks (Barone et al. , 1997; Baumeister et al. , 1994). These indices as well as barriers efficacy were used to prospectively predict self-reported exercise behaviour. The hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the expanded self-regulatory efficacy variables (i. e. , scheduling, relapse prevention, goal-setting self-efficacy) explained a significant amount of variance in exercise behaviour. In addition, barriers efficacy also contributed significant, but modest, variance to the model. These results underscore McAuley and Mihalko?s (1998) recommendation that multiple measures of self-efficacy should be used to examine exercise behaviour. The findings also emphasize that a focus solely on barriers as the indicant of self-regulatory efficacy in exercise may be overlooking other aspects of the construct that contribute to prediction.

Study Two extended the descriptive findings of the first study and addressed a recognized research need (Dzewaltowski, 1994; McAuley & Blissmer, 2000; McAuley et al. , 2001). Specifically, this study examined the possibility of individual differences (i. e. , optimism, consideration of future consequences) influencing the relationship between self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behaviour. Results indicated that participants higher in optimism reported significantly greater self-regulatory efficacy and exercise intentions for intensity than did those lower in optimism. In addition, participants higher in consideration of future consequences (CFC) reported greater self-regulatory efficacy and exercise attendance than participants with moderate CFC. Finally, CFC significantly moderated the influence of various indices self-regulatory efficacy on subsequent exercise attendance. However the effect upon the prospective relationship was modest.

Whereas the first two studies examined the predictive relationship between self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behaviour, Study Three focused upon the influence of sources of self-regulatory efficacy in strengthening efficacy beliefs. This investigation concerned the effects of an acute manipulation of self-efficacy information in changing self-regulatory self-efficacy within a special population -- cardiac rehabilitation exercise program participants. According to theory, sources of self-efficacy information are common to task and self-regulatory efficacy (Bandura, 1997).

The study used a 2 (message condition) by 2 (time) design in which cardiac rehabilitation program participants were randomly assigned to conditions. Utilizing a written message employing the self-efficacy sources of verbal persuasion and vicarious experiences, self-regulatory efficacy for the scheduling of independent exercise was targeted within an ?efficacy enhancing? condition. This condition was compared to an ?information control? message of other information relevant to cardiac rehabilitation participants. As hypothesized, the efficacy-enhancing condition exhibited increased scheduling self-efficacy compared to the control condition. As well, exercise-related cognitions (i. e. , intentions for frequency, action plans, behavioural commitment to learning about independent exercise) were superior for the efficacy-enhancing condition participants compared to their control conditioncounterparts.

Taken together, the studies support and extend research on self-regulatory efficacy in the exercise domain. In part, this was accomplished by expanding the operationalization of exercise-related self-regulatory efficacy to represent more components of self-regulation than examined in the exercise literature to date. In addition, these studies extend previous descriptive research by examining the potential moderators of the influence of self-regulatory efficacy on exercise behaviour. Finally, the third study represented one of the first efforts to experimentally manipulate determinants of self-regulatory efficacy for independent exercise in a special population. It supported the hypothesis that informational determinants (i. e. , vicarious experience, verbal persuasion) can be acutely manipulated to increase self-regulatory efficacy among cardiac rehabilitation participants.
Protective Responses during a Sideways Fall: Effects of Secondary Tasks
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Shankar, Sneha
Falls and hip fractures are a major public health problem among the elderly. In addition to bone strength, sideways falls and direct hip impact are important determinants for hip fracture. However, few falls actually cause serious injury in both young and older adults. Therefore, understanding how individuals facilitate a safe landing during a fall will help guide appropriate exercise-based training programs. The primary purpose of this thesis was to investigate the effects of secondary tasks on movement strategies during a sideways fall.

To address this aim, I used a tether and electromagnet to suddenly release subjects from a sideways leaning position, causing them to fall onto a gymnasium mat. I instructed subjects to "fall and protect yourself, as if you were landing on a hard surface". I acquired trials in four conditions, presented in a pseudo-random order: falling while holding a box, falling while holding an empty mug, falling while reciting spoken text, and falling with no secondary task. In most trials, regardless of condition, impact occurred to the lateral aspect of the pelvis (no secondary task = 87%, box = 82%, cognitive = 90%, mug = 79%). While the frequency of impact to both hands decreased when carrying an object (box=67%, mug=50% compared to cognitive=90% and no secondary task=85%), 40% of trials in the mug condition involved one hand contacting the ground, indicating hand impact was still common. It appears when protective movements such as impact to the knees and hands did occur, they were not used to avoid direct hip impact. Instead, they were used to help break the fall, and to avoid head impact, which was not seen in this experiment. The results from this study indicate that secondary tasks have minimal effects on fall responses and that the rare occurrence of hip fractures in the young is due to some combination of bone strength and effective use of body segments to break the fall.

In a second study, I examined how a cognitive task affected the ability of young women to rotate forward (FR) or backward (BR) during a sideways fall. Subjects were released from a sideways leaning position and were provided with a visual cue upon tether release instructing them on the desired direction of rotation. The site of impact on the pelvis (as reflected by the hip proximity angle) was closer to the lateral aspect of the hip in cognitive trials than in control trials (43 ± 18º versus 51 ± 19º in FR and 59 ± 18º versus 68 ± 18º in BR) (p=0. 0006). This was due to a longer delay in the initiation of rotation in cognitive trials (293 ± 60 ms versus 232 ± 71 ms in FR and 278 ± 87 ms versus 239 ± 60 ms), as opposed to a change in mean angular velocity. Pelvis impact velocity was similar in the two conditions (2. 6 ± 0. 3 m/s compared to 2. 7 ± 0. 3 m/s in FR trials and 2. 8 ± 0. 2 m/s compared to 2. 9 ± 0. 2 m/s in BR trials) (p=0. 0514). The results from this study indicate that involvement in a secondary task can impair safe landing responses. Secondary attentional tasks cause a delay in the initiation of fall protective responses, which alters landing configuration. However, the motor programme that governs falling, remaining consistent across condition is robust to changes in task execution at the onset of the fall.
The Effects of 60 Days of Head Down Bed Rest on Vascular Health
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Mattar, Louis
This study was designed to test the hypothesis that 60 days continuous head down bed rest (HDBR), an Earth-based analogue of the effects of space flight, would elevate factors that increase vasoconstriction and would increase markers of vascular inflammation. The study incorporated countermeasures consisting of treadmill running within lower-body negative pressure and resistive "flywheel" exercise (exercise countermeasure, EX) or an increased protein intake of 0. 6 g/kg body weight/day (dietary countermeasures, DIET) to determine whether these interventions might prevent the vasoconstrictor and inflammatory responses when compared to a control (CON) group. Markers of vascular health measured in the study include the vasoactive molecules angiotensin II (Ang II), endothelin-1 (ET-1), and nitric oxide metabolites (NO_met); and markers of inflammation including C-reactive protein (CRP), and the adhesion molecules E-selectin (E-sel), intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM), and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM). Twenty four women were housed at the MEDES clinic in Toulouse, France, as part of a large international study (Women International Space Simulation for Exploration, WISE) in which various experimental protocols and countermeasures were integrated into a single experimental design completed during two campaigns. Each 100 day campaign included 20 days of pre-testing (pre-HDBR), 60 days of bed rest (HDBR), and 20 days of post-testing (post-HDBR). The experimental countermeasures were applied only during the 60-day HDBR period. Following 60 days of HDBR, many changes occurred in the concentrations of the measured molecules. Specifically, the concentration of Ang II significantly increased in the CON and DIET groups (52. 9%, p = 0. 014; and 124. 4%, p <0. 0001 respectively), but not in the EX group. Also, NO_met decreased in all groups, with reductions in the EX and DIET groups (p = 0. 013, and p = 0. 056 respectively). Markers used to assess vascular inflammation increased following the HDBR. The increase in CRP in the CON and DIET groups and the decrease in the EX group from pre- to post-HDBR were not significant; however, the directional changes resulted in an interaction between group and HDBR (p = 0. 052). The adhesion molecule E-sel was significantly increased in the DIET group (p = 0. 003), and VCAM was significantly increased in the CON group (p = 0. 016) with a smaller increase in the DIET group (p = 0. 08). No changes in adhesion molecules were observed in the EX group. This study demonstrated that 60 days of HDBR by young, healthy, women caused changes in several different molecules that are beginning to emerge as risk factors for the development of cardiovascular diseases. Further, it was observed that regular, vigorous exercise during HDBR prevented these changes. These results suggest that future studies of this kind should directly monitor the effects of simulated space flight on vascular health in men and women to obtain a greater understanding of the adaptations that might occur during long term space exploration missions. HDBR can be considered an extreme model of physical inactivity and could be used to provide insight into mechanisms of disease processes associated with the sedentary lifestyle that is prevalent in Western society.
An Examination of Quality of Work Life And Quality of Care Within a Health Care Setting
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Fortune, Darla
Unsatisfactory working conditions and job stress may be indicative of working in a society where work-life balance is a desired, but often elusive, goal (Duxbury & Higgins, 2001; Smola & Sutton, 2002; Sturges & Guest, 2004). Working conditions in the healthcare sector are reported to be particularly problematic and stress inducing compared to other work sectors (Yassi, Ostry, Spiegel, Walsh, & de Boer, 2002). In fact, quality of work life (QOWL) among healthcare workers is believed to have deteriorated to the point where it is impeding the capacity of the system to recruit and retain staff needed to provide effective patient care (Koehoorn, Lowe, Rondeau, Schellenberg, & Wager, 2002). The purpose of the study was to examine the experiences of healthcare staff who participate in QOWL initiatives aimed to provide employees with creative, educational, and fun activities designed to address feelings of stress. This study included thirteen staff members from disciplines that comprise the Health Care Team at a facility specializing in aging and veteran's care. Data were collected through conversational interviews with staff from each of the following disciplines: nursing, recreation therapy, physiotherapy, creative arts, clinical nutrition, social work, audiology, occupational therapy, and pastoral care. The data were deconstructed into common themes through an open-ended process, which lead to the identification of common experiences across the data provided by the staff. Upon further comparison of the themes, it was identified that work demands were believed to detract from care provision and strained manager relations were believed to minimize quality of care. However, a strong professional identity was evident as staff described being able to rise above adversity and use their skills and competencies to provide quality care to residents. The data also suggested QOWL initiatives seem to be valuable because they provide opportunities for staff to interact socially. This interaction helps foster and strengthen connections amongst staff, which they feel transfers to the work place through improved working relationships. Participants described feelings of personal gratification that can be derived from team cohesiveness. They also acknowledged the carry over value that team work brings to residents by way of improved care provision. Furthermore, the relationships that staff members develop with one another were viewed as sources of strength, particularly in times of increased stress. In addition to the social element associated with the QOWL initiatives, these initiatives also seem to address a need for restoration, humour, and balance within the work day. Without planned opportunities for rejuvenation and humour appreciation, participants admitted that they would seldom take the time to incorporate these into their work day. Therefore, QOWL initiatives can provide staff with a reason to take a break and find their balance. The findings indicate the factors affecting QOWL are varied and complex. The findings also indicate that there can be a paradoxical nature to work within a health care setting. Paradoxes exist in relation to the provision of professional care and the provision of minimized care. Paradoxes also exist in relation to the expressed need for restoration, humour, and balance and the low priority staff will place on taking time to fulfill these needs.
Environmental Behaviour, Place Attachment and Park Visitation: A case study of visitors to Point Pelee National Park
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Halpenny, Elizabeth A.
This thesis explores the relationship between place attachment and pro-environmental behaviour expressed by visitors to Point Pelee National Park. Place attachment, the functional, cognitive and emotional bond with a place, may play a role in promoting environmentally responsible behaviours. This may be especially true of place-specific pro-environmental behaviours; however place attachment may also have a "carry-over" effect in that its impact on individuals' self identity may also foster pro-environmental behaviour in individuals' every day lives.

An exploration of these relationships was achieved, first by measuring the intensity of place attachment and pro-environment behavioural intentions expressed by visitors to Point Pelee National Park. This was followed by an examination of the relationship between these two constructs using correlation analysis and structural equation modeling. Data was collected with a mail-based self-completed questionnaire. A quota sample of visitors to Point Pelee National Park was utilized. A response rate of 32% (n = 355) was achieved.

The relationship between place attachment and pro-environmental intentions was explored further through the measurement of several related variables. These factors include place satisfaction (based on an appraisal of nature, social and activity-based environments), motivation for visiting the park (related to social interaction and nature observation, as well as activity-based and learning opportunities), distance between the park and visitors' residences, membership in environmental organizations, and visitation patterns including visitation to the park during childhood, length of affiliation with the park, length of visit to the park, and frequency of visitation to the park. Theoretical and empirical research suggests that these factors may affect place attachment, pro-environment behavioural intentions, and/or the relationship between these two constructs.

Study results found positive associations between place attachment and all of these variables with the exception of visitation motives associated with learning and engaging in a favourite activity. The strongest predictive relationships were observed with anti-substitution (the inability of an individual to substitute the park for another destination because of a lack of resources such as time or money or a lack of awareness of comparable sites) followed by frequency of visits to the park; park commitment (based on Friends group membership and donations of time and money to the Friends group); Friends of Point Pelee (FoPP) membership; and park relationship (which was based on visitation to the park as a child and length of affiliation); and, satisfaction with the park.

Results support the proposition that place attachment has a strong positive association with both park-specific pro-environment behavioural intentions (e. g. , Write letters in support of Point Pelee N. P. and similar protected areas) as well as general pro-environment behavioural intentions (e. g. , Pay extra for transportation if it is environmentally-friendly). Place attachment strongly predicted park-specific, and moderately predicted general pro-environmental intentions. A number of other variables had an indirect effect on park-specific intentions; notable effects were demonstrated by frequency of visits; park relationship; visitation to the park as a child; place satisfaction; social satisfaction; FoPP membership; and, park commitment; anti-substitution. These affects were mediated by place attachment. After place attachment the strongest predictors of park-specific intentions were anti-substitution; frequency of visits; park commitment; and, general environmental commitment (which was based on membership in an environmental organization and donations of time and money to that organization).

Place attachment was not the only direct predicator of general pro-environmental intentions; general environmental commitment and membership in an environmental organization also directly predicted general pro-environmental intentions. Notable indirect effects, mediated by place attachment were produced by frequency of visits; park relationship; FoPP membership; park commitment; and anti-substitution. The strongest predictors of general pro-environmental intentions were general environmental commitment, followed by place attachment, membership in an environmental organization, and frequency of park visitation.

These findings correspond with much of the literature published on place attachment formation and the development of pro-environmental behaviours. The most notable contribution of this study is its comparison of place attachment's impact on general versus place-specific behaviours, and the role that several related variables play in this relationship.
Central Nervous System Control of Dynamic Stability during Locomotion in Complex Environments
(University of Waterloo, 2006) MacLellan, Michael
A major function of the central nervous system (CNS) during locomotion is the ability to maintain dynamic stability during threats to balance. The CNS uses reactive, predictive, and anticipatory mechanisms in order to accomplish this. Previously, stability has been estimated using single measures. Since the entire body works as a system, dynamic stability should be examined by integrating kinematic, kinetic, and electromyographical measures of the whole body. This thesis examines three threats to stability (recovery from a frontal plane surface translation, stepping onto and walking on a compliant surface, and obstacle clearance on a compliant surface). These threats to stability would enable a full body stability analysis for reactive, predictive, and anticipatory CNS control mechanisms. From the results in this study, observing various biomechanical variables provides a more precise evaluation of dynamic stability and how it is achieved. Observations showed that different methods of increasing stability (eg. Lowering full body COM, increasing step width) were controlled by differing CNS mechanisms during a task. This provides evidence that a single measure cannot determine dynamic stability during a locomotion task and the body must be observed entirely to determine methods used in the maintenance of dynamic stability.
The Raging Grannies: Understanding the Role of Activism in the Lives of Older Women
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Caissie, Linda
Guided by feminist gerontology, this qualitative study explored the role of activism in the lives of older women. More specifically, it examined the involvement of older women in one particular group of activists, the Raging Grannies. Of particular interest was to understand the experience of how and why older women become involved in activism. This study was collaborative in nature, with in-depth active interviews as the primary method of data collection. In total 15 women participated in face-to-face interviews, with five women contributing to the study in an on-line Raging Grannies forum. Participants were located in Ontario, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The findings demonstrated that these women, who used non-violent, creative methods of protest, challenged the traditional views of growing older. Through their activism, the Raging Grannies also created community. Although the Raging Grannies did not define their experience as leisure, they described their experience as "fun" but rewarding work. The intent of this research was to contribute to the literature on ageing and leisure while giving the opportunity for older women to share their stories. Emergent theory suggests that activism for these women represented the application or expression of shared life experiences which are unique to women. The Raging Grannies provided the space for the study participants to express their collective life experiences, particularly in the context of shared concerns around a more just, fair and sustainable society.
Progressive Disc Herniation: An investigation of the mechanism using histochemical and microscopic techniques
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Tampier, Claudio
Abstract Background: The process that involves the migration of the nucleus pulposus from the innermost annular layers and culminates with the final extrusion of the nucleus has been limited to a few studies. This investigation was directed towards a better understanding of the herniation process. The architecture of the annulus fibrosus and the mechanism of progressive disc herniation were analyzed, using a controlled porcine model. Microscopic and histochemical techniques were employed.

Methodology: Two studies were performed. In the first stage, the macroscopic and microscopic structures of twelve cervical intervertebral discs were compared with young human disc data from studies reported in the literature. Important structural features were studied such as annulus fibrosus thickness, number of lamellae, lamellae thickness, orientation of the lamellae fibers and blood supply. In the second study, sixteen fresh-frozen functional spine units were submitted to repetitive flexion?extension motions combined with a low compressive load in a servo-hydraulic dynamic testing system. Discograms, dissections and histochemical techniques were applied to characterize the cumulative damage. The experiment produced eight complete herniations, four partial herniations and four specimens without any microscopic detectable annular damage.

Results and Discussion: The structure of the cervical porcine disc resembles the lumbar human disc. Some differences are evident. The size of the annulus is smaller, the thickness of the lamellae is narrower and the number of layers is fewer in the pig. It is hypothesized that the flexion-extension motion combined with a low-level load produced an increased hydraulic pressure in the inner wall of the posterior annulus. This pressure and repetitive motion first produced a small cleft, spreading the collagen bundles inside the first layer. The nuclear material was "pumped" through the small cleft to the first layer filling the layer creating a fluid-filled pocket between the collagen fibers. Once the "pocket" acquired enough pressure a new cleft was produced in the weakest part of the layer allowing the nuclear material to create a new "pocket" in the second layer. This was the first stage of damage and disc herniation production. This mechanism was repeated until the nucleus traveled along the annulus reaching the posterior longitudinal ligament. At this point a complete extrusion herniation was produced.

Conclusion: The porcine model appears to be suitable as a model to understand the mechanism of disc herniation when the spine is subjected to flexion-extension motions combined with a low-level load. The first cumulative injury appears to be a cleft between the lamellae bundles produced by the nuclear hydraulic pressure. A cumulative load/cumulative injury model approach was used to create the damage that was quantified in the study.
Locating Instability in the Lumbar Spine: Characterizing the Eigenvector
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Howarth, Samuel
Overloading of the back can cause instability such that buttressing the instability is a primary objective of many of the leading edge therapeutic approaches. However, a challenge lies in determining the location of the instability or the least stable vertebral joint. A mathematical analysis, based on a commonly used approach in engineering for determining structural stability, has been developed for the lumbar spine. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the feasibility of a method for mathematically locating potential areas of instability within a computer-based model of the lumbar spine. To validate this method, the eigenvector from the stability analysis was compared to the output from a geometric equation that approximated individual vertebral joint rotational stiffness with the idea that the entry in the eigenvector with the largest absolute value would correspond to the vertebral joint and axis with the lowest stiffness. Validation of the eigenvector was not possible due to computational similarities between the stability analysis and the geometric rotational stiffness method. However, it has been previously demonstrated that the eigenvector can be useful for locating instability, and thus warrants future study. Determining the least stable vertebral joint and axis can be used to guide proper motor pattern training as a clinical intervention. It was also shown in this investigation that an even distribution of fascicle force and stiffness generated stability. This supports the idea that well-coordinated efforts of muscle activation are beneficial for improving stability of the lumbar spine.
An examination of glove attributes and their respective contributions to force decrement and increased effort in power grip at maximal and submaximal levels
(University of Waterloo, 2006) Willms, Kirsten
Gloved work has been shown to increase the effort required to perform manual tasks. In power grip tasks, these differences have been observed as reductions in strength and increases in muscular effort. Decreases in force output have been attributed to a number of factors, including loss of tactile sensitivity, glove flexibility or suppleness, thickness, changes in hand geometry, and friction at the glove-object interface. Glove research has rarely quantified glove attributes, and often compared gloves of varying material and physical properties. This research had the unique opportunity to control for a number of these properties by using three sets of identical gloves (powerline maintainers? insulating rubber gloves), differing only in thickness.

Administering the Von Frey Hair Test indicated that the gloves did indeed decrease tactile sensitivity. This research showed that increasing glove thickness led to large decreases in maximum power grip force. Small changes in hand geometry, such as increased interdigital space or grip span, affected force output. In the same hand posture, participants increased their grip force with increasing glove thickness for the object lifting task but were able to maintain a fixed submaximal force with visual feedback. The decrease in tactile sensitivity is a likely cause of this difference.

Muscular activity was affected by wearing the gloves while performing manual tasks. Inconsistent responses of muscular activation were seen in gloved maximum grip effort, while overall increases in electromyographic activity were recorded for tasks at submaximal levels when wearing gloves.

Interdigital spacing had different effects on maximal and submaximal tasks. For maximum effort power grip, interdigital spacing decreased force output by as much as 10%, with no significant changes in muscle activation. For submaximal tasks, no significant differences were seen in muscular activity or in force output. The overall force capability of the gloved user is hindered by changes in interdigital spacing at near maximal effort, but does not appear to be for tasks requiring lower grip force, such as the lifting task which required roughly 20%MVC. Overall, the effect of wearing these gloves on the users, the powerline maintainers, is a substantially increased effort to work. This research contributes to a greater understanding of why and how gloves inhibit performance.

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